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Describe stem cells and their role in multicellular organisms.

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can continually divide and become specialized. In multicellular organisms, all specialized cells originate as undifferentiated stem cells. This process of becoming specialized is known as differentiation.

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"Describe stem cells and their role in multicellular organisms."	"Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can continually divide and become specialized. In multicellular organisms, all specialized cells originate as undifferentiated stem cells. This process of becoming specialized is known as differentiation."
"Define totipotent cells and their role in development."	"Totipotent cells are a type of stem cell that can divide and produce any type of body cell. They occur only for a limited time in early mammalian embryos. During development, totipotent cells translate only part of their DNA, resulting in cell specialization."
"Explain the potential uses and ethical issues surrounding pluripotent cells."	"Pluripotent cells are found in embryos and can become almost any type of cell. They are used in research with the prospect of using them to treat human disorders, such as replacing damaged cells in humans. However, there are ethical debates surrounding their use, such as whether it is right to create a therapeutic clone of oneself to obtain stem cells, and then destroy the embryo."
"Differentiate between multipotent and unipotent cells."	"Multipotent and unipotent cells are found in mature mammals. Multipotent cells can differentiate into a limited number of cells, whereas unipotent cells can only differentiate into one type of cell. For example, unipotent cells are used in the formation of cardiomyocytes."
"Where are sources of pluripotent stem cells found in mammals?"	"In mammals, sources of pluripotent stem cells are found in embryos, up to 16 days after fertilization. These cells can differentiate into any type of cells."
"Describe the characteristics of stem cells found in the umbilical cord blood, placenta, and adult bone marrow."	"Umbilical cord blood contains multipotent stem cells, similar to adult stem cells. The placenta has stem cells that can develop into a limited number of specialized cells. Adult stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow, can produce different cells to repair those within a particular tissue or organ."
"Define induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) and explain how they are produced."	"Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) are produced from adult somatic cells using appropriate protein transcription factors. These cells, which can be from almost any body cell, are altered in the lab to return them to a state of pluripotency. This is done by switching back on the genes that were switched off to make the cell specialized."
"How do iPS cells compare to embryonic pluripotent stem cells?"	"iPS cells are very similar to embryonic pluripotent stem cells, but they do not cause the destruction of an embryo and the adult can give permission for their use. Also, iPS cells have shown a self-renewal property, in that they can divide indefinitely to give limitless supplies."
"Explain the role of transcription factors in the control of transcription."	"In eukaryotes, transcription of target genes can be stimulated or inhibited when specific transcription factors move from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. These transcription factors can bind to different base sequences on DNA, and therefore initiate transcription of genes. Once bound, transcription begins, creating the mRNA molecule for that gene which can then be translated in the cytoplasm to create the protein."
"Do transcription factors have a role in cell specialization?"	"Yes, turning on/off particular genes in a cell by transcription factors is what enables them to become specialized."
"Describe the role of oestrogen in initiating transcription."	"Oestrogen is a steroid hormone that initiates transcription by binding to a receptor site of a transcriptional factor. This binding causes the transcriptional factor to change shape slightly, making it complementary and able to bind to the DNA to initiate transcription."
"Define epigenetics and its role in gene expression."	"Epigenetics is how the environment interacts with the genome. Factors such as diet, stress, and toxins can add chemical tags to the DNA, controlling gene expression in eukaryotes. This involves heritable changes in gene function, without changes to the base sequence of DNA."
"Explain the concept of the epigenome and its impact on DNA expression."	"The epigenome is a layer of chemical tags on the DNA that impacts the shape of the DNA-histone complex and whether the DNA is tightly wound or unwound. If the DNA is tightly wound, transcription factors cannot bind, inhibiting transcription. The epigenome is influenced by changes in the environment."
"How does increased methylation of the DNA affect gene expression?"	"When methyl groups are added to DNA, they attach to the cytosine base. This prevents transcriptional factors from binding and attracts proteins that condense the DNA-histone complex, preventing a section of DNA from being transcribed."
"What happens when acetyl groups are removed from the DNA?"	"If acetyl groups are removed from the DNA, then the histones become more positive and are attracted more to the phosphate group on DNA. This makes the DNA and histones more strongly associated and hard for the transcription factors to bind."
"How can epigenetics lead to the development of cancerous tumors?"	"Epigenetics can lead to the development of cancerous tumors if tumor suppressor genes or proto-oncogenes are affected. Changes in the epigenome can alter the expression of these genes, potentially leading to uncontrolled cell growth and the formation of tumors."
"Describe how drugs can be used to treat cancer by manipulating gene expression."	"Drugs can prevent the histone acetylation or DNA methylation that may have caused genes to be switched on/off, resulting in the formation of cancerous tumors."
"Explain the process of RNA interference (RNAi) in eukaryotes and some prokaryotes."	"RNAi is when an mRNA molecule that has already been transcribed gets destroyed before it is translated to create a polypeptide chain. This is done by a small interfering RNA (siRNA). An enzyme can cut the mRNA into siRNA, and one strand of the siRNA then combines with an enzyme. This siRNA-enzyme complex will bind via complementary base pairing to another mRNA molecule, and once bound, the enzyme will cut up the mRNA so it cannot be translated."
"Define the term 'stem cell'."	"A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can divide and differentiate into specialized cells."
"What is the significance of iPS cells in overcoming ethical issues with using embryonic stem cells?"	"iPS cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells, have been developed to help overcome the ethical issues with using embryonic stem cells. They are adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state."
"Define the term 'siRNA'."	"siRNA stands for small interfering RNA. It is a type of RNA molecule that interferes with the expression of specific genes."
"What is the role of methyl and acetyl levels in cancer detection?"	"Abnormal levels of methyl and acetyl in a patient can be an early indicator of cancer. Tests can be used to measure these levels."

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[{"id":1331974,"front":"Describe stem cells and their role in multicellular organisms.","back":"Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can continually divide and become specialized. In multicellular organisms, all specialized cells originate as undifferentiated stem cells. This process of becoming specialized is known as differentiation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Stem cells are crucial in multicellular organisms as they have the unique ability to continuously divide and differentiate into specialized cells. This process is essential for the development, growth, and repair of tissues and organs in the body. Stem cells play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis and are a key focus in medical research for potential therapeutic applications.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331975,"front":"Define totipotent cells and their role in development.","back":"Totipotent cells are a type of stem cell that can divide and produce any type of body cell. They occur only for a limited time in early mammalian embryos. During development, totipotent cells translate only part of their DNA, resulting in cell specialization.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Totipotent cells are crucial in early development due to their ability to give rise to any type of body cell. This process is tightly regulated, as only a portion of their DNA is expressed, leading to cell specialization. This specialization is fundamental for the formation of different tissues and organs in the developing embryo.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331976,"front":"Explain the potential uses and ethical issues surrounding pluripotent cells.","back":"Pluripotent cells are found in embryos and can become almost any type of cell. They are used in research with the prospect of using them to treat human disorders, such as replacing damaged cells in humans. However, there are ethical debates surrounding their use, such as whether it is right to create a therapeutic clone of oneself to obtain stem cells, and then destroy the embryo.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Pluripotent cells hold promise for regenerative medicine, potentially revolutionizing treatments for conditions like Parkinson's or spinal cord injuries. However, ethical concerns arise regarding the source of these cells, particularly the moral status of embryos and the implications of cloning, which challenge societal values and beliefs about life.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331977,"front":"Differentiate between multipotent and unipotent cells.","back":"Multipotent and unipotent cells are found in mature mammals. Multipotent cells can differentiate into a limited number of cells, whereas unipotent cells can only differentiate into one type of cell. For example, unipotent cells are used in the formation of cardiomyocytes.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Multipotent cells have the ability to differentiate into a limited range of cell types, offering more versatility than unipotent cells, which can only specialize into a single cell type. This distinction is crucial in understanding the potential applications and limitations of each cell type in various biological processes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331978,"front":"Where are sources of pluripotent stem cells found in mammals?","back":"In mammals, sources of pluripotent stem cells are found in embryos, up to 16 days after fertilization. These cells can differentiate into any type of cells.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Pluripotent stem cells are crucial for early development in mammals. They are found in embryos up to 16 days post-fertilization and have the potential to develop into any cell type in the body. These cells are valuable for research and regenerative medicine due to their versatility and ability to regenerate damaged tissues.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331987,"front":"Describe the characteristics of stem cells found in the umbilical cord blood, placenta, and adult bone marrow.","back":"Umbilical cord blood contains multipotent stem cells, similar to adult stem cells. The placenta has stem cells that can develop into a limited number of specialized cells. Adult stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow, can produce different cells to repair those within a particular tissue or organ.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Stem cells from umbilical cord blood are valued for their ability to differentiate into various cell types, making them versatile for therapies. Placental stem cells offer unique regenerative potential but are more limited in specialization. Adult bone marrow stem cells are crucial for tissue maintenance and repair, highlighting their role in regenerative medicine.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332000,"front":"Define induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) and explain how they are produced.","back":"Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) are produced from adult somatic cells using appropriate protein transcription factors. These cells, which can be from almost any body cell, are altered in the lab to return them to a state of pluripotency. This is done by switching back on the genes that were switched off to make the cell specialized.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"iPS cells are a significant advancement in regenerative medicine as they offer a non-controversial way to generate patient-specific stem cells. The process involves reprogramming adult cells to a pluripotent state, mimicking embryonic stem cells without ethical concerns. This technique has revolutionized research possibilities and potential therapeutic applications.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332008,"front":"How do iPS cells compare to embryonic pluripotent stem cells?","back":"iPS cells are very similar to embryonic pluripotent stem cells, but they do not cause the destruction of an embryo and the adult can give permission for their use. Also, iPS cells have shown a self-renewal property, in that they can divide indefinitely to give limitless supplies.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"iPS cells offer a promising alternative to embryonic stem cells due to their ethical advantages and potential for personalized medicine. Their ability to self-renew indefinitely makes them valuable for research and therapeutic applications. Additionally, their derivation from adult cells simplifies ethical concerns.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332009,"front":"Explain the role of transcription factors in the control of transcription.","back":"In eukaryotes, transcription of target genes can be stimulated or inhibited when specific transcription factors move from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. These transcription factors can bind to different base sequences on DNA, and therefore initiate transcription of genes. Once bound, transcription begins, creating the mRNA molecule for that gene which can then be translated in the cytoplasm to create the protein.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Transcription factors are crucial proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences. Their movement into the nucleus can either activate or repress transcription of target genes. This process is essential for the precise control of protein production in cells.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332010,"front":"Do transcription factors have a role in cell specialization?","back":"Yes, turning on/off particular genes in a cell by transcription factors is what enables them to become specialized.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Transcription factors play a crucial role in cell specialization by regulating gene expression. They control which genes are turned on or off in a cell, ultimately determining its specialized function. This process is essential for the development and maintenance of different cell types in multicellular organisms.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332011,"front":"Describe the role of oestrogen in initiating transcription.","back":"Oestrogen is a steroid hormone that initiates transcription by binding to a receptor site of a transcriptional factor. This binding causes the transcriptional factor to change shape slightly, making it complementary and able to bind to the DNA to initiate transcription.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Oestrogen's ability to bind to a specific receptor site on a transcription factor is crucial for initiating transcription. This binding induces conformational changes in the transcription factor, enabling it to interact with DNA and kickstart the transcription process.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332012,"front":"Define epigenetics and its role in gene expression.","back":"Epigenetics is how the environment interacts with the genome. Factors such as diet, stress, and toxins can add chemical tags to the DNA, controlling gene expression in eukaryotes. This involves heritable changes in gene function, without changes to the base sequence of DNA.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Epigenetics involves modifications to DNA that influence gene expression without altering the underlying genetic code. These changes can be influenced by external factors like lifestyle and environment, impacting how genes are activated or silenced in response to different stimuli.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332013,"front":"Explain the concept of the epigenome and its impact on DNA expression.","back":"The epigenome is a layer of chemical tags on the DNA that impacts the shape of the DNA-histone complex and whether the DNA is tightly wound or unwound. If the DNA is tightly wound, transcription factors cannot bind, inhibiting transcription. The epigenome is influenced by changes in the environment.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The epigenome plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression by modifying the structure of DNA without altering the underlying sequence. These modifications can be influenced by various factors such as lifestyle, diet, and environmental exposures, ultimately impacting how genes are expressed.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332014,"front":"How does increased methylation of the DNA affect gene expression?","back":"When methyl groups are added to DNA, they attach to the cytosine base. This prevents transcriptional factors from binding and attracts proteins that condense the DNA-histone complex, preventing a section of DNA from being transcribed.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332015,"front":"What happens when acetyl groups are removed from the DNA?","back":"If acetyl groups are removed from the DNA, then the histones become more positive and are attracted more to the phosphate group on DNA. This makes the DNA and histones more strongly associated and hard for the transcription factors to bind.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332016,"front":"How can epigenetics lead to the development of cancerous tumors?","back":"Epigenetics can lead to the development of cancerous tumors if tumor suppressor genes or proto-oncogenes are affected. Changes in the epigenome can alter the expression of these genes, potentially leading to uncontrolled cell growth and the formation of tumors.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Epigenetic changes can silence tumor suppressor genes or activate proto-oncogenes, disrupting normal cell growth regulation. This can result in uncontrolled cell division and tumor formation. Understanding these epigenetic alterations is crucial in cancer development and treatment.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332017,"front":"Describe how drugs can be used to treat cancer by manipulating gene expression.","back":"Drugs can prevent the histone acetylation or DNA methylation that may have caused genes to be switched on/off, resulting in the formation of cancerous tumors.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Drugs targeting histone acetylation or DNA methylation can modify gene expression, potentially reversing the abnormal gene activity that drives cancer growth. By altering these epigenetic marks, the drugs can help restore normal gene regulation and inhibit tumor formation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332018,"front":"Explain the process of RNA interference (RNAi) in eukaryotes and some prokaryotes.","back":"RNAi is when an mRNA molecule that has already been transcribed gets destroyed before it is translated to create a polypeptide chain. This is done by a small interfering RNA (siRNA). An enzyme can cut the mRNA into siRNA, and one strand of the siRNA then combines with an enzyme. This siRNA-enzyme complex will bind via complementary base pairing to another mRNA molecule, and once bound, the enzyme will cut up the mRNA so it cannot be translated.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"RNA interference (RNAi) involves the destruction of mRNA by small interfering RNA (siRNA) in eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. An enzyme processes mRNA into siRNA, which then binds to an enzyme to form a complex. This complex targets and cleaves complementary mRNA, preventing translation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332019,"front":"Define the term 'stem cell'.","back":"A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell that can divide and differentiate into specialized cells.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332020,"front":"What is the significance of iPS cells in overcoming ethical issues with using embryonic stem cells?","back":"iPS cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells, have been developed to help overcome the ethical issues with using embryonic stem cells. They are adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332021,"front":"Define the term 'siRNA'.","back":"siRNA stands for small interfering RNA. It is a type of RNA molecule that interferes with the expression of specific genes.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"siRNA is a crucial tool in gene regulation research due to its ability to silence genes by targeting specific mRNA sequences. This interference mechanism can be harnessed for therapeutic purposes, such as treating genetic disorders or viral infections.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332022,"front":"What is the role of methyl and acetyl levels in cancer detection?","back":"Abnormal levels of methyl and acetyl in a patient can be an early indicator of cancer. Tests can be used to measure these levels.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Methyl and acetyl levels play a crucial role in cancer detection as they can indicate changes in gene expression associated with cancer development. Abnormal levels of these compounds can serve as biomarkers for early detection through specific tests targeting their quantification.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"otbmq","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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