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Gene Technology

A-Level AQA Biology

This pack of flashcards covers key concepts in gene technology, including sequencing projects, the variability of the proteome, recombinant DNA technology, and the role of enzymes like reverse transcriptase and restriction endonucleases. It also delves into laboratory techniques for creating and amplifying DNA fragments, the use of vectors for DNA manipulation, the identification of recombinant DNA, and the application of DNA probes and genetic fingerprinting in medical and forensic contexts.

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"Describe the purpose of sequencing projects in gene technology."	"Sequencing projects read the genomes of a wide range of organisms, including humans. This provides opportunities to screen DNA to identify potential medical problems. It also helps in understanding the proteome of an organism, which is the complete set of proteins in a cell."
"How does the proteome vary in organisms?"	"The proteome, which is all the proteins in a cell, varies over time and between cells. In simpler organisms, the proteome can be derived from the genetic code if the genome sequence is known. However, in more complex organisms like humans, the presence of non-coding DNA and regulatory genes means that knowledge of the genome cannot easily be translated into the proteome."
"Define Recombinant DNA Technology."	"Recombinant DNA Technology involves the combining of different organisms' DNA. This could enable scientists to manipulate and alter genes to improve industrial processes and medical treatment. Transferring DNA fragments between or within species is possible because the genetic code is universal."
"What is the role of Reverse Transcriptase in gene technology?"	"Reverse Transcriptase is an enzyme that can make DNA copies from mRNA. This naturally occurs in certain viruses, such as HIV. In gene technology, a cell that naturally produces the protein that scientists want to harvest is selected. The reverse transcriptase enzyme can then align and join the DNA complementary bases that match the mRNA sequence, creating a single-stranded DNA known as complementary DNA (cDNA)."
"What is the function of Restriction Endonucleases in gene technology?"	"Restriction Endonucleases are enzymes that cut up DNA. They naturally occur in bacteria as a defense mechanism. In gene technology, they are used to create fragments of DNA for further manipulation and study."
"Describe the function of restriction enzymes in DNA manipulation."	"Restriction enzymes have an active site complementary in shape to a range of different DNA base sequences, known as recognition sequences. This allows each enzyme to cut the DNA at a specific location. Some enzymes cut at the same location in the double strand creating a blunt end, while others cut to create staggered ends and exposed DNA bases, referred to as 'sticky ends'."
"How are DNA fragments created in a lab using a computerized machine?"	"Scientists first examine the protein of interest to identify the amino acid sequence, and from that work out what the mRNA and DNA sequence would be. The DNA sequence is then entered into the computer, which checks for biosafety and biosecurity. The computer can create small sections of overlapping single strands of nucleotides that make up the gene, called oligonucleotides. These can then be joined to create the DNA for the entire gene."
"Define the term 'oligonucleotides' in the context of gene technology."	"Oligonucleotides are small sections of overlapping single strands of nucleotides that make up the gene. They are created by a computerized machine in the lab and can be joined to create the DNA for the entire gene."
"Explain the process of amplifying DNA fragments in vitro."	"Fragments of DNA can be amplified in vitro via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The temperature is first increased to split the DNA into single strands, and then cooled so that a primer can attach. The enzyme DNA polymerase then attaches complementary free nucleotides and makes a new strand to align next to each template."
"What is the role of a promoter and a terminator region in DNA transcription?"	"The promoter and terminator regions are extra DNA added to a DNA fragment to enable RNA polymerase to attach and transcribe mRNA from it. The promoter region enables transcription to be initiated, while the terminator region signals the end of transcription."
"Define the term 'vector' in the context of DNA manipulation."	"In the context of DNA manipulation, a 'vector' is a vehicle used to transport the DNA into the host cell. Plasmids are commonly used vectors."
"Describe the role of restriction endonucleases in the process of DNA manipulation."	"Restriction endonucleases are used to cut open the plasmid, the bacterial loop of DNA. Using the same restriction endonuclease to create the DNA fragment and to cut open the plasmid ensures they have complementary sticky ends."
"Explain the process of transformation in DNA manipulation."	"Transformation involves mixing the plasmids and bacterial cells in a solution of calcium ions. Sudden changes in the temperature of the solution make the bacterial membrane more permeable and the plasmid enters."
"How is recombinant DNA identified in bacterial cells?"	"Recombinant DNA is identified by growing the bacteria on agar plates containing antibiotics. If the bacteria took up the plasmid, they will have the gene for antibiotic resistance and will survive. Further testing is needed to identify if the plasmid they took up was a recombinant one. The DNA fragment is deliberately inserted in the middle of a marker gene, which could be a gene for resistance to another antibiotic or a fluorescent protein gene. Those that do not fluoresce under UV light must have the recombinant plasmid."
"What is the role of DNA ligase in the process of DNA manipulation?"	"DNA ligase is used to stick the DNA fragment into the plasmid. This results in what is known as recombinant DNA."
"Explain how antibiotic resistance genes are used in the identification of recombinant DNA."	"Plasmids contain antibiotic resistance genes. To identify if the plasmid was taken up, the bacteria are grown on agar plates containing antibiotics. If the bacteria took up the plasmid, then they will have the gene for antibiotic resistance and will survive. This is the first step of identification, as we know these bacteria contain a plasmid."
"Describe the purpose and process of using DNA probes in gene technology."	"DNA probes are short, single-stranded pieces of DNA that are labeled radioactively or fluorescently for identification. They are used to locate specific alleles of genes and to screen patients for heritable conditions, drug responses, or health risks. A sample of patient DNA is removed, heated to make it single-stranded, and mixed with DNA probes that have been created to be complementary to a range of different alleles for genes. If the patient has that allele, their DNA will bind with the probe, which can be identified using an x-ray or UV light."
"Define Genetic Fingerprinting and its significance."	"Genetic Fingerprinting is the analysis of variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) DNA fragments that have been cloned by PCR. It is used in determining genetic relationships and the genetic variability within a population. This method can be used in forensic science to place suspects at crime scenes, for medical diagnosis, and to ensure animals and plants are not closely related before being bred."
"How does the VNTRs contribute to genetic fingerprinting?"	"95% of human DNA is made up of introns, which consist of many variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The probability of two individuals having the same VNTRs is very low, however, the more closely related you are, the more similar the VNTRs are. This uniqueness of VNTRs is used in genetic fingerprinting."
"Do you know the commonly used vector in in vivo gene cloning?"	"The commonly used vector in in vivo gene cloning is a plasmid."
"How is PCR used in the process of producing genetic fingerprints?"	"PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is used to amplify the VNTR DNA fragments that are then analyzed in the process of producing genetic fingerprints."

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Describe the purpose of sequencing projects in gene technology.

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Sequencing projects read the genomes of a wide range of organisms, including humans. This provides opportunities to screen DNA to identify potential medical problems. It also helps in understanding the proteome of an organism, which is the complete set of proteins in a cell.

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[{"id":1332121,"front":"Describe the purpose of sequencing projects in gene technology.","back":"Sequencing projects read the genomes of a wide range of organisms, including humans. This provides opportunities to screen DNA to identify potential medical problems. It also helps in understanding the proteome of an organism, which is the complete set of proteins in a cell.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Sequencing projects in gene technology aim to read and analyze the genomes of various organisms, enabling the identification of genetic variations and potential medical conditions. Additionally, they contribute to understanding an organism's proteome, which is crucial for studying cellular functions and developing medical treatments.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332132,"front":"How does the proteome vary in organisms?","back":"The proteome, which is all the proteins in a cell, varies over time and between cells. In simpler organisms, the proteome can be derived from the genetic code if the genome sequence is known. However, in more complex organisms like humans, the presence of non-coding DNA and regulatory genes means that knowledge of the genome cannot easily be translated into the proteome.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The proteome varies in organisms due to factors such as genetic code, non-coding DNA, and regulatory genes. In simpler organisms, the proteome can be derived from the genetic code, while in complex organisms like humans, translation from genome to proteome is not straightforward due to additional genetic complexities.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332137,"front":"Define Recombinant DNA Technology.","back":"Recombinant DNA Technology involves the combining of different organisms' DNA. This could enable scientists to manipulate and alter genes to improve industrial processes and medical treatment. Transferring DNA fragments between or within species is possible because the genetic code is universal.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Recombinant DNA Technology merges DNA from different sources, allowing manipulation of genes for medical and industrial advancements. The universal genetic code enables transfer of DNA fragments between species, facilitating genetic modification.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332148,"front":"What is the role of Reverse Transcriptase in gene technology?","back":"Reverse Transcriptase is an enzyme that can make DNA copies from mRNA. This naturally occurs in certain viruses, such as HIV. In gene technology, a cell that naturally produces the protein that scientists want to harvest is selected. The reverse transcriptase enzyme can then align and join the DNA complementary bases that match the mRNA sequence, creating a single-stranded DNA known as complementary DNA (cDNA).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Reverse Transcriptase plays a crucial role in gene technology by enabling the creation of complementary DNA (cDNA) from mRNA. This process allows scientists to harvest desired proteins from cells and is particularly useful in biotechnology and medical research.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332149,"front":"What is the function of Restriction Endonucleases in gene technology?","back":"Restriction Endonucleases are enzymes that cut up DNA. They naturally occur in bacteria as a defense mechanism. In gene technology, they are used to create fragments of DNA for further manipulation and study.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Restriction Endonucleases play a crucial role in gene technology by precisely cutting DNA at specific sequences. This ability allows scientists to manipulate DNA, create recombinant DNA molecules, and study gene functions. Their natural presence in bacteria has been harnessed for genetic engineering purposes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332150,"front":"Describe the function of restriction enzymes in DNA manipulation.","back":"Restriction enzymes have an active site complementary in shape to a range of different DNA base sequences, known as recognition sequences. This allows each enzyme to cut the DNA at a specific location. Some enzymes cut at the same location in the double strand creating a blunt end, while others cut to create staggered ends and exposed DNA bases, referred to as 'sticky ends'.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Restriction enzymes play a crucial role in DNA manipulation by recognizing specific DNA sequences and cutting the DNA at precise locations. This ability to create defined ends, either blunt or sticky, enables various genetic engineering techniques like gene cloning and DNA fragment analysis.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332151,"front":"How are DNA fragments created in a lab using a computerized machine?","back":"Scientists first examine the protein of interest to identify the amino acid sequence, and from that work out what the mRNA and DNA sequence would be. The DNA sequence is then entered into the computer, which checks for biosafety and biosecurity. The computer can create small sections of overlapping single strands of nucleotides that make up the gene, called oligonucleotides. These can then be joined to create the DNA for the entire gene.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"In laboratory settings, the process of creating DNA fragments involves a combination of bioinformatics and synthetic biology. By analyzing the protein structure, researchers can deduce the corresponding genetic code. The use of computerized systems enhances precision and safety, ensuring that the synthesized sequences are viable for further experimentation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332152,"front":"Define the term 'oligonucleotides' in the context of gene technology.","back":"Oligonucleotides are small sections of overlapping single strands of nucleotides that make up the gene. They are created by a computerized machine in the lab and can be joined to create the DNA for the entire gene.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Oligonucleotides play a crucial role in gene technology by serving as building blocks for gene synthesis. These short DNA or RNA sequences are synthesized artificially and can be customized for various applications like gene editing, PCR, and gene expression studies. They are essential tools in genetic engineering processes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332153,"front":"Explain the process of amplifying DNA fragments in vitro.","back":"Fragments of DNA can be amplified in vitro via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The temperature is first increased to split the DNA into single strands, and then cooled so that a primer can attach. The enzyme DNA polymerase then attaches complementary free nucleotides and makes a new strand to align next to each template.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"PCR is a widely used technique to amplify DNA fragments in vitro. It involves a series of temperature changes to denature the DNA, allow primers to bind, and then use DNA polymerase to extend the DNA strands. This process results in the exponential amplification of the targeted DNA sequence.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332154,"front":"What is the role of a promoter and a terminator region in DNA transcription?","back":"The promoter and terminator regions are extra DNA added to a DNA fragment to enable RNA polymerase to attach and transcribe mRNA from it. The promoter region enables transcription to be initiated, while the terminator region signals the end of transcription.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Promoter regions contain specific sequences that are recognized by transcription factors and RNA polymerase, facilitating the assembly of the transcription machinery. Terminator regions, on the other hand, ensure that transcription stops at the correct point, preventing the production of non-functional RNA and maintaining gene regulation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332155,"front":"Define the term 'vector' in the context of DNA manipulation.","back":"In the context of DNA manipulation, a 'vector' is a vehicle used to transport the DNA into the host cell. Plasmids are commonly used vectors.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"In DNA manipulation, a vector serves as a carrier to transport DNA into a host cell. It acts as a vehicle to deliver the desired DNA sequence. Plasmids are frequently employed as vectors due to their ability to replicate independently within the host cell. This allows for the amplification of the DNA of interest. Vectors play a crucial role in genetic engineering and gene therapy by facilitating the introduction of foreign DNA into cells.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332156,"front":"Describe the role of restriction endonucleases in the process of DNA manipulation.","back":"Restriction endonucleases are used to cut open the plasmid, the bacterial loop of DNA. Using the same restriction endonuclease to create the DNA fragment and to cut open the plasmid ensures they have complementary sticky ends.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Restriction endonucleases are essential tools in genetic engineering, allowing precise cuts in DNA. By generating complementary sticky ends, they facilitate the ligation of DNA fragments into plasmids, enabling the introduction of new genes into organisms. This specificity is crucial for successful cloning and gene expression.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332157,"front":"Explain the process of transformation in DNA manipulation.","back":"Transformation involves mixing the plasmids and bacterial cells in a solution of calcium ions. Sudden changes in the temperature of the solution make the bacterial membrane more permeable and the plasmid enters.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Transformation in DNA manipulation is a crucial step where plasmids are introduced into bacterial cells. The use of calcium ions and temperature changes aids in making the bacterial membrane permeable, allowing the plasmid to enter and potentially express desired genes. This process is fundamental in genetic engineering and biotechnology.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332164,"front":"How is recombinant DNA identified in bacterial cells?","back":"Recombinant DNA is identified by growing the bacteria on agar plates containing antibiotics. If the bacteria took up the plasmid, they will have the gene for antibiotic resistance and will survive. Further testing is needed to identify if the plasmid they took up was a recombinant one. The DNA fragment is deliberately inserted in the middle of a marker gene, which could be a gene for resistance to another antibiotic or a fluorescent protein gene. Those that do not fluoresce under UV light must have the recombinant plasmid.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Recombinant DNA in bacterial cells is detected by growing them on antibiotic-containing agar plates. Bacteria surviving the antibiotic have the resistance gene from the plasmid. Additional tests are done to confirm if the plasmid is recombinant, often by inserting a marker gene like one for antibiotic resistance or fluorescence. Non-fluorescent bacteria likely contain the recombinant plasmid.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332165,"front":"What is the role of DNA ligase in the process of DNA manipulation?","back":"DNA ligase is used to stick the DNA fragment into the plasmid. This results in what is known as recombinant DNA.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"DNA ligase plays a crucial role in DNA manipulation by catalyzing the formation of phosphodiester bonds between DNA fragments. This enzyme helps create recombinant DNA molecules by sealing nicks in the sugar-phosphate backbone, allowing for the insertion of foreign DNA into a plasmid vector.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332166,"front":"Explain how antibiotic resistance genes are used in the identification of recombinant DNA.","back":"Plasmids contain antibiotic resistance genes. To identify if the plasmid was taken up, the bacteria are grown on agar plates containing antibiotics. If the bacteria took up the plasmid, then they will have the gene for antibiotic resistance and will survive. This is the first step of identification, as we know these bacteria contain a plasmid.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Antibiotic resistance genes are used in the identification of recombinant DNA because they are present in plasmids. By growing bacteria on agar plates containing antibiotics, we can determine if the bacteria have taken up the plasmid. If they have, they will possess the antibiotic resistance gene and be able to survive. This method allows us to identify bacteria that contain the desired plasmid and are therefore recombinant.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332188,"front":"Describe the purpose and process of using DNA probes in gene technology.","back":"DNA probes are short, single-stranded pieces of DNA that are labeled radioactively or fluorescently for identification. They are used to locate specific alleles of genes and to screen patients for heritable conditions, drug responses, or health risks. A sample of patient DNA is removed, heated to make it single-stranded, and mixed with DNA probes that have been created to be complementary to a range of different alleles for genes. If the patient has that allele, their DNA will bind with the probe, which can be identified using an x-ray or UV light.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332209,"front":"Define Genetic Fingerprinting and its significance.","back":"Genetic Fingerprinting is the analysis of variable number tandem repeats (VNTR) DNA fragments that have been cloned by PCR. It is used in determining genetic relationships and the genetic variability within a population. This method can be used in forensic science to place suspects at crime scenes, for medical diagnosis, and to ensure animals and plants are not closely related before being bred.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Genetic Fingerprinting, based on VNTR analysis, is crucial for identifying genetic connections and diversity. Its applications range from forensics to breeding, ensuring accuracy in investigations and breeding programs. This method's precision aids in various fields, enhancing outcomes and reliability.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332223,"front":"How does the VNTRs contribute to genetic fingerprinting?","back":"95% of human DNA is made up of introns, which consist of many variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The probability of two individuals having the same VNTRs is very low, however, the more closely related you are, the more similar the VNTRs are. This uniqueness of VNTRs is used in genetic fingerprinting.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"VNTRs are crucial for genetic fingerprinting due to their high variability among individuals. This variability allows for precise identification, as the likelihood of two unrelated individuals sharing the same VNTR pattern is minimal. Consequently, VNTR analysis can effectively distinguish between individuals in forensic and paternity cases.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332231,"front":"Do you know the commonly used vector in in vivo gene cloning?","back":"The commonly used vector in in vivo gene cloning is a plasmid.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Plasmids are circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently within a host cell. Their ability to carry foreign DNA and facilitate gene expression makes them ideal for in vivo cloning. They often contain antibiotic resistance genes, allowing for the selection of successfully transformed cells.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1332238,"front":"How is PCR used in the process of producing genetic fingerprints?","back":"PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is used to amplify the VNTR DNA fragments that are then analyzed in the process of producing genetic fingerprints.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"PCR is crucial in genetic fingerprinting as it allows for the replication of specific DNA regions like VNTRs. This amplification step ensures there is enough DNA for analysis. VNTRs are variable between individuals, making them ideal for unique genetic profiling.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"ANKwL","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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