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Inheritance

A-Level AQA Biology

This pack of flashcards encompasses essential genetic concepts, including definitions and explanations of genotype, phenotype, and various inheritance patterns. It covers test crosses, dihybrid crosses, codominance, multiple alleles, sex-linkage, autosomal linkage, and the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, with examples like coat color in Labrador retrievers and human blood groups.

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"Define the term 'Genotype'."	"The genetic constitution of an organism (the alleles it has for a gene)."
"Describe the term 'Phenotype'."	"The expression of the genes and their interaction with the environment."
"How does a 'Test Cross' work in genetic inheritance?"	"A test cross can be used to determine whether an organism displaying a dominant characteristic is due to a homozygous dominant or heterozygous genotype. The organism in question is crossed with a member of its own species that is homozygous recessive for that trait. The offspring's phenotypes are then analyzed."
"Explain the concept of 'Dihybrid' in genetic inheritance."	"Dihybrid refers to a genetic inheritance cross for a characteristic determined by two genes."
"What does 'Codominance' mean in the context of genetics?"	"Codominance refers to a situation where both alleles are equally dominant and expressed in the phenotype."
"What is meant by 'Multiple Alleles'?"	"Multiple Alleles refers to a situation where there are more than two alleles for a single gene."
"Define 'Sex-linkage' in genetics."	"Sex-linkage refers to a gene whose locus is on the X chromosome."
"What does 'Autosomal Linkage' refer to in genetics?"	"Autosomal Linkage refers to genes that are located on the same chromosome (not the sex chromosomes)."
"Describe the phenotype for blood group and how it is determined."	"The phenotype for blood group can be A, B, AB, or O. These letters refer to which protein, or antigen, is found on the outside of red blood cells. Only one gene codes for this phenotype, but there are three alleles. Allele IA codes for the A antigen and is dominant. Allele IB codes for the B antigen and is dominant. Allele IO codes for no antigen and is recessive. As allele IA and IB are both dominant, they will both be expressed to create the phenotype AB."
"Define Sex-Linkage Inheritance and give examples of diseases linked to it."	"Sex-Linkage Inheritance refers to the inheritance of genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. The X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome and contains a much larger non-homologous region that contains many non-sex-determining genes. Examples of diseases linked to this inheritance include hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and red-green color blindness."
"Explain Autosomal Linkage Inheritance."	"Autosomal Linkage Inheritance studies the inheritance of two genes located on the same chromosome, excluding the X and/or Y chromosome. In this inheritance, assuming that crossing over did not occur to change the locus of the gene, the genes located on the same chromosomes cannot be separated during independent segregation and therefore have to be inherited together."
"How does epistasis affect the coat color on Labrador retrievers?"	"Coat color on Labrador retrievers is an example of epistasis. There are two genes that control coat color: one gene codes for whether pigment is produced or not, and the other gene codes for the concentration of the pigment. Gene 1 can mask the expression of gene 2 if the alleles inherited are e, coding for no pigment produced."
"Describe the genotypes and phenotypes of a Yellow Labrador."	"The genotypes for a Yellow Labrador are eebb, eeBB, eeBb. The genotype for gene 1 is homozygous recessive, so gene 2 is masked because no pigment will be produced."
"Define the genotypes and phenotypes of a Chocolate Labrador."	"The genotypes for a Chocolate Labrador are Eebb, EEbb. The genotype for gene 1 codes for making pigment, so there must be at least one dominant E allele. The second gene must be homozygous recessive to code for brown."
"Explain the genotypes and phenotypes of a Black Labrador."	"The genotypes for a Black Labrador are EeBb, EEBb, EeBB, EEBB. Gene 1 codes for making pigment, so there must be at least one dominant E allele. For the Labrador to be black, the genotype for the second gene must contain at least one dominant B allele."
"How is the Hardy–Weinberg Principle used in genetics?"	"The Hardy–Weinberg Principle is a mathematical model that can be used to predict the allele frequencies within a population. It assumes that there will be no change in the allele frequency between generations within a population. The frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in a population can be calculated using the Hardy–Weinberg equation: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1."
"How is the Chi-Squared Statistic used in inheritance?"	"Chi-Squared Statistic in inheritance can be used to determine an estimate of the expected frequency of each phenotype/genotype with certain parents. It can be used to determine whether the frequency or ratio of phenotypes you expected is significantly different from the ratio you observe."

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Define the term 'Genotype'.

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The genetic constitution of an organism (the alleles it has for a gene).

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[{"id":1331652,"front":"Define the term 'Genotype'.","back":"The genetic constitution of an organism (the alleles it has for a gene).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The term 'genotype' refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, specifically the combination of alleles it possesses for a particular gene. It represents the inherited information that determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. Genotype is distinct from phenotype, which is the observable expression of the genotype in terms of physical traits or characteristics. Understanding an organism's genotype is crucial for studying inheritance patterns and genetic variations within a population.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331662,"front":"Describe the term 'Phenotype'.","back":"The expression of the genes and their interaction with the environment.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction between its genetic makeup and the environment. It encompasses physical traits, such as eye color, as well as behavioral and physiological traits. The phenotype is influenced by both genetic factors and environmental factors, highlighting the complex nature of gene-environment interactions in determining an organism's traits.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331686,"front":"How does a 'Test Cross' work in genetic inheritance?","back":"A test cross can be used to determine whether an organism displaying a dominant characteristic is due to a homozygous dominant or heterozygous genotype. The organism in question is crossed with a member of its own species that is homozygous recessive for that trait. The offspring's phenotypes are then analyzed.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"A test cross is a breeding experiment used to determine the genotype of an organism displaying a dominant trait. By crossing it with a homozygous recessive individual, the resulting offspring's phenotypes can reveal whether the dominant organism is homozygous dominant or heterozygous. This helps in understanding the inheritance pattern and genotype of the dominant trait.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331707,"front":"Explain the concept of 'Dihybrid' in genetic inheritance.","back":"Dihybrid refers to a genetic inheritance cross for a characteristic determined by two genes.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Dihybrid refers to a cross involving two genes that control different characteristics. This concept is based on Mendel's law of independent assortment, which states that alleles for different traits segregate independently during gamete formation. By studying dihybrid crosses, scientists can understand how different genes interact and contribute to the inheritance of multiple traits simultaneously. This helps in predicting the phenotypic ratios of offspring and understanding the complexity of genetic inheritance.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331729,"front":"What does 'Codominance' mean in the context of genetics?","back":"Codominance refers to a situation where both alleles are equally dominant and expressed in the phenotype.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Codominance in genetics occurs when both alleles of a gene are expressed equally in the phenotype. This means that neither allele is dominant or recessive to the other. As a result, both traits associated with the alleles are visible in the individual. This is different from incomplete dominance, where the traits blend together. Codominance allows for the expression of multiple distinct traits simultaneously.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331744,"front":"What is meant by 'Multiple Alleles'?","back":"Multiple Alleles refers to a situation where there are more than two alleles for a single gene.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Multiple alleles refer to the presence of more than two different forms of a gene in a population. Each individual can only have two alleles, but there can be multiple options available in the population. This variation in alleles can lead to different phenotypic traits and genetic diversity within a population.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331762,"front":"Define 'Sex-linkage' in genetics.","back":"Sex-linkage refers to a gene whose locus is on the X chromosome.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Sex-linkage is a genetic phenomenon where a gene is located on the sex chromosome, typically the X chromosome. This means that the inheritance of the gene is influenced by the sex of the individual. In humans, traits controlled by sex-linked genes are more commonly observed in males, as they have only one X chromosome. Females, with two X chromosomes, have a higher chance of being carriers of sex-linked traits. This pattern of inheritance can lead to specific genetic disorders or variations being more prevalent in one sex over the other.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331772,"front":"What does 'Autosomal Linkage' refer to in genetics?","back":"Autosomal Linkage refers to genes that are located on the same chromosome (not the sex chromosomes).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Autosomal linkage refers to the phenomenon where genes are located on the same autosome, which are non-sex chromosomes. This means that these genes are physically close to each other on the same chromosome and are likely to be inherited together. Autosomal linkage can affect the inheritance patterns of traits and can be used to map the location of genes on chromosomes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331784,"front":"Describe the phenotype for blood group and how it is determined.","back":"The phenotype for blood group can be A, B, AB, or O. These letters refer to which protein, or antigen, is found on the outside of red blood cells. Only one gene codes for this phenotype, but there are three alleles. Allele IA codes for the A antigen and is dominant. Allele IB codes for the B antigen and is dominant. Allele IO codes for no antigen and is recessive. As allele IA and IB are both dominant, they will both be expressed to create the phenotype AB.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The phenotype for blood group is determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells. There are four possible phenotypes: A, B, AB, or O. These phenotypes are determined by three alleles of a single gene. Allele IA codes for the A antigen, allele IB codes for the B antigen, and allele IO codes for no antigen. The IA and IB alleles are both dominant, so if an individual has both alleles, they will express both antigens and have the AB phenotype.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331793,"front":"Define Sex-Linkage Inheritance and give examples of diseases linked to it.","back":"Sex-Linkage Inheritance refers to the inheritance of genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. The X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome and contains a much larger non-homologous region that contains many non-sex-determining genes. Examples of diseases linked to this inheritance include hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and red-green color blindness.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Sex-Linkage Inheritance occurs when genes are located on the sex chromosomes. In humans, the X chromosome is larger and carries more non-sex-determining genes. Diseases linked to this inheritance pattern are more common in males because they only have one X chromosome. Hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and red-green color blindness are examples of such diseases. This is due to the recessive nature of the genes involved and the lack of a second X chromosome to compensate for the defective gene.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331807,"front":"Explain Autosomal Linkage Inheritance.","back":"Autosomal Linkage Inheritance studies the inheritance of two genes located on the same chromosome, excluding the X and/or Y chromosome. In this inheritance, assuming that crossing over did not occur to change the locus of the gene, the genes located on the same chromosomes cannot be separated during independent segregation and therefore have to be inherited together.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Autosomal linkage inheritance refers to the inheritance of genes located on the same autosome (non-sex chromosome). These genes are physically close to each other on the chromosome and tend to be inherited together. This is because, during meiosis, crossing over between homologous chromosomes does not occur frequently enough to separate these genes. As a result, they are usually inherited as a unit, rather than independently segregating. This phenomenon can have implications for genetic inheritance patterns and can affect the likelihood of certain traits or disorders being passed on together.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331815,"front":"How does epistasis affect the coat color on Labrador retrievers?","back":"Coat color on Labrador retrievers is an example of epistasis. There are two genes that control coat color: one gene codes for whether pigment is produced or not, and the other gene codes for the concentration of the pigment. Gene 1 can mask the expression of gene 2 if the alleles inherited are e, coding for no pigment produced.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Epistasis refers to the interaction between different genes where one gene masks or modifies the expression of another gene. In the case of coat color in Labrador retrievers, there are two genes involved. One gene determines whether pigment is produced or not, while the other gene controls the concentration of the pigment. The first gene can mask the expression of the second gene if the alleles inherited are e, which results in no pigment being produced. This interaction between the two genes is an example of epistasis and influences the coat color of Labrador retrievers.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331828,"front":"Describe the genotypes and phenotypes of a Yellow Labrador.","back":"The genotypes for a Yellow Labrador are eebb, eeBB, eeBb. The genotype for gene 1 is homozygous recessive, so gene 2 is masked because no pigment will be produced.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The genotypes of a Yellow Labrador can be eebb, eeBB, or eeBb. The presence of the recessive allele e masks the expression of the dominant allele E, resulting in a yellow coat color. The genotype for gene 1 being homozygous recessive means that no pigment will be produced, which explains why gene 2 is masked. This combination of genotypes leads to the phenotype of a Yellow Labrador with a yellow coat color.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331840,"front":"Define the genotypes and phenotypes of a Chocolate Labrador.","back":"The genotypes for a Chocolate Labrador are Eebb, EEbb. The genotype for gene 1 codes for making pigment, so there must be at least one dominant E allele. The second gene must be homozygous recessive to code for brown.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The genotypes of a Chocolate Labrador are Eebb and EEbb. The presence of at least one dominant E allele in the first gene is necessary for pigment production. The second gene must be homozygous recessive to result in a brown coat color. These genotypes determine the phenotypes, which in this case is a Labrador with a chocolate brown coat.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331856,"front":"Explain the genotypes and phenotypes of a Black Labrador.","back":"The genotypes for a Black Labrador are EeBb, EEBb, EeBB, EEBB. Gene 1 codes for making pigment, so there must be at least one dominant E allele. For the Labrador to be black, the genotype for the second gene must contain at least one dominant B allele.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The genotypes of a Black Labrador involve combinations of two genes. The first gene determines pigment production, with at least one dominant E allele required. The second gene determines coat color, with at least one dominant B allele needed for black coloration. The phenotypes of a Black Labrador are characterized by a black coat color, which is a result of the specific genotypes mentioned.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331875,"front":"How is the Hardy–Weinberg Principle used in genetics?","back":"The Hardy–Weinberg Principle is a mathematical model that can be used to predict the allele frequencies within a population. It assumes that there will be no change in the allele frequency between generations within a population. The frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in a population can be calculated using the Hardy–Weinberg equation: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Hardy-Weinberg Principle is a fundamental concept in population genetics. It allows scientists to make predictions about the genetic makeup of a population over time. By assuming that certain conditions are met, such as no mutation, migration, selection, or genetic drift, the principle provides a baseline for understanding how allele frequencies remain stable from one generation to the next. The Hardy-Weinberg equation is a useful tool for calculating these frequencies and determining the distribution of genotypes and phenotypes in a population.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1331892,"front":"How is the Chi-Squared Statistic used in inheritance?","back":"Chi-Squared Statistic in inheritance can be used to determine an estimate of the expected frequency of each phenotype/genotype with certain parents. It can be used to determine whether the frequency or ratio of phenotypes you expected is significantly different from the ratio you observe.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Chi-Squared Statistic is used in inheritance to analyze the deviation between observed and expected frequencies of phenotypes or genotypes. By comparing the observed and expected frequencies, it helps determine if there is a significant difference between the expected and observed ratios. This statistical test allows researchers to assess whether the observed data fits the expected inheritance patterns or if there are other factors at play.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"75Azw","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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