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Exchange Surfaces

A-Level AQA Biology

This pack of flashcards encompasses a detailed exploration of biological concepts related to the surface area to volume ratio in organisms, gas exchange mechanisms across various species, Fick's Law, and the digestive processes in mammals. It delves into the physical adaptations for efficient substance exchange, the roles of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in human respiration, and the intricacies of nutrient absorption in the ileum.

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"Describe the role of external intercostal muscles during inspiration and expiration."	"During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs upwards and outwards. During expiration, these muscles relax."
"What is a micelle and what role does it play in digestion?"	"A micelle is a tiny structure formed by monoglycerides and fatty acids during lipid digestion. Due to the non-polar nature of the fatty acids and monoglycerides, micelles can simply diffuse across the cell surface membrane to enter the cells of the epithelial cells."
"What is the function of villi and microvilli in the ileum?"	"The ileum wall is covered in villi and epithelial cells have microvilli. These structures maximize absorption by increasing the surface area, decreasing the diffusion distance, and maintaining a concentration gradient."
"How are lipids digested and absorbed in the ileum?"	"Lipids are digested into monoglycerides and fatty acids by the action of lipase and bile salts. These form tiny structures called micelles. Due to the non-polar nature of the fatty acids and monoglycerides, they can simply diffuse across the cell surface membrane to enter the cells of the epithelial cells. Once in the cell, these will be modified back into triglycerides inside the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body."
"Describe the process of absorption in mammals."	"In mammals, the products of digestion are absorbed across the cells lining the ileum. Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by co-transport, a special type of active transport. The ileum wall is covered in villi and epithelial cells have microvilli, which maximize absorption by increasing the surface area, decreasing the diffusion distance, and maintaining a concentration gradient."
"Define proteins and the enzymes that hydrolyze them."	"Proteins are large polymer molecules that can be hydrolyzed by three enzymes: endopeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between amino acids in the middle of a polymer chain; exopeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between amino acids at the end of a polymer chain; and membrane-bound dipeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between two amino acids."
"How does the process of expiration work?"	"During expiration, the internal intercostal muscles contract, the ribs move downwards and inwards, and the diaphragm relaxes and moves up. This results in a decreased volume of the thorax, an increased air pressure, and air is forced out of the lungs."
"Describe the role of lipase and bile salts in lipid digestion."	"Lipase, produced in the pancreas, hydrolyzes the ester bond in triglycerides to form monoglycerides and fatty acids. Bile salts, produced in the liver, emulsify lipids to form tiny droplets called micelles, increasing the surface area for lipase to act on."
"Explain the process of carbohydrate digestion in mammals."	"Carbohydrates require more than one enzyme to hydrolyze them into monosaccharides. Amylase, produced by the pancreas and salivary glands, hydrolyzes polysaccharides into the disaccharide maltose. Membrane-bound enzymes like sucrase and lactase then hydrolyze sucrose and lactose into monosaccharides."
"How does the structure of alveoli facilitate gas exchange?"	"Alveoli are tiny air sacs, with 300 million in each human lung, creating a large surface area for gas exchange. Their walls are very thin, minimizing diffusion distance. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries, which facilitates the removal of exchanged gases and maintains a concentration gradient."
"Define the role of the diaphragm in the process of breathing."	"During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing the volume of the thorax and reducing air pressure, which forces air into the lungs. During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, decreasing the volume of the thorax, increasing air pressure, and forcing air out of the lungs."
"Describe the relationship between the size of an organism or structure and its surface area to volume ratio."	"The relationship between the size of an organism or structure and its surface area to volume ratio plays a significant role in determining the types of adaptations an organism will have. Small organisms have a large surface area in comparison to their volume, allowing for efficient exchange of substances. Larger organisms have a smaller surface area compared to their volume, necessitating adaptations for efficient transport of substances."
"Describe the mechanism of breathing in humans."	"Ventilation is the mechanism of breathing in humans and it involves the diaphragm and antagonistic interaction between the external and internal intercostal muscles in bringing about pressure changes in the thoracic cavity."
"What adaptations do xerophytic plants have to prevent water loss by evaporation?"	"Xerophytic plants have many adaptations to prevent water loss by evaporation. Their cuticle is very thick, they roll up to cover the stomata, the leaves are hairy to trap water vapor, and the stomata are often sunken in pits."
"Define the role of stomata in plants."	"Stomata are tiny pores mainly on leaves that can open or close, determined by the guard cells surrounding them. This is a mechanism to help prevent excessive water loss by evaporation."
"How do dicotyledonous plants exchange gases?"	"Dicotyledonous plants exchange gases through stomata, which are tiny pores mainly on leaves. These pores can open or close, determined by the guard cells surrounding them."
"Describe the process of gas exchange in fish."	"Fish exchange gases across their gills, which are made of gill lamellae and filaments. The process is dependent on the counter-current principle where water flows over the gills in the opposite direction to the flow of blood in the capillaries. This ensures that a diffusion gradient is maintained across the entire length of the gill lamellae."
"Define Fick’s Law."	"Fick’s Law is used to calculate the rate of diffusion. It states that Diffusion = (surface area X difference in concentration) / length of diffusion path."
"How does the production of lactate during flight affect gas exchange in insects?"	"When an insect is in flight, the muscle cells start to respire anaerobically to produce lactate. This lowers the water potential of the cells, and therefore water moves from the tracheoles into the cells by osmosis, aiding in gas exchange."
"Explain how gas exchange occurs in insects."	"Gas exchange in insects involves a tracheal system (tracheae, tracheoles, and spiracles). Gas can be exchanged by diffusion, as when cells respire they use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide, creating a concentration gradient from the tracheoles to the atmosphere. The second method of gas exchange is mass transport, in which an insect contracts and relaxes their abdominal muscles to move gases en masse."
"Define the adaptations larger organisms have due to their surface area to volume ratio."	"Larger organisms typically have a smaller surface area compared to their volume and a larger distance from the middle to the outside. They usually have a higher metabolic rate, which demands efficient transport of waste out of cells and reactants into the cells. As a result, they have adaptations that help make the exchange across surfaces more efficient."
"How does the surface area to volume ratio affect the exchange of substances in small organisms like amoeba?"	"In small organisms like amoeba, the large surface area in comparison to their volume means that there is a big surface for exchange of substances, but also a smaller distance from the outside of the organism to the middle of it. As a result, very small organisms can simply exchange substances across their surface."

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Front

Describe the role of external intercostal muscles during inspiration and expiration.

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During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs upwards and outwards. During expiration, these muscles relax.

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[{"id":1276052,"front":"Describe the role of external intercostal muscles during inspiration and expiration.","back":"During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs upwards and outwards. During expiration, these muscles relax.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The external intercostal muscles play a crucial role in the process of breathing. When they contract during inspiration, they help elevate and expand the ribcage, allowing for an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity. This expansion creates a negative pressure, causing air to flow into the lungs. During expiration, these muscles relax, allowing the ribcage to return to its resting position, which decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity and facilitates the expulsion of air from the lungs.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276089,"front":"What is a micelle and what role does it play in digestion?","back":"A micelle is a tiny structure formed by monoglycerides and fatty acids during lipid digestion. Due to the non-polar nature of the fatty acids and monoglycerides, micelles can simply diffuse across the cell surface membrane to enter the cells of the epithelial cells.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":1,"explanation":"Micelles are crucial in digestion as they enable the absorption of lipids, which are otherwise insoluble in water. Their formation increases the surface area for enzymes to act, facilitating the breakdown of lipids. This process is essential for the body to utilize fats for energy and other functions.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276088,"front":"What is the function of villi and microvilli in the ileum?","back":"The ileum wall is covered in villi and epithelial cells have microvilli. These structures maximize absorption by increasing the surface area, decreasing the diffusion distance, and maintaining a concentration gradient.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":2,"explanation":"Villi and microvilli in the ileum increase surface area for absorption, decrease diffusion distance, and maintain a concentration gradient. This enhances the efficiency of nutrient absorption in the small intestine, crucial for nutrient uptake in the body.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276087,"front":"How are lipids digested and absorbed in the ileum?","back":"Lipids are digested into monoglycerides and fatty acids by the action of lipase and bile salts. These form tiny structures called micelles. Due to the non-polar nature of the fatty acids and monoglycerides, they can simply diffuse across the cell surface membrane to enter the cells of the epithelial cells. Once in the cell, these will be modified back into triglycerides inside the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":3,"explanation":"Lipids are broken down into monoglycerides and fatty acids by lipase and bile salts in the ileum. These form micelles, allowing the non-polar fatty acids and monoglycerides to diffuse across cell membranes. Inside the cells, they are modified back into triglycerides.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276086,"front":"Describe the process of absorption in mammals.","back":"In mammals, the products of digestion are absorbed across the cells lining the ileum. Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by co-transport, a special type of active transport. The ileum wall is covered in villi and epithelial cells have microvilli, which maximize absorption by increasing the surface area, decreasing the diffusion distance, and maintaining a concentration gradient.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":4,"explanation":"The absorption process in mammals involves the uptake of digested products across the lining of the ileum. This occurs through co-transport, a specialized form of active transport, which allows for efficient absorption of monosaccharides and amino acids. The presence of villi and microvilli in the ileum wall further enhances absorption by maximizing surface area and maintaining a concentration gradient.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276085,"front":"Define proteins and the enzymes that hydrolyze them.","back":"Proteins are large polymer molecules that can be hydrolyzed by three enzymes: endopeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between amino acids in the middle of a polymer chain; exopeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between amino acids at the end of a polymer chain; and membrane-bound dipeptidases, which hydrolyze peptide bonds between two amino acids.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":5,"explanation":"Proteins are complex molecules made up of amino acids. They can be broken down by specific enzymes: endopeptidases cleave peptide bonds within the protein chain, exopeptidases cleave bonds at the ends, and dipeptidases target bonds between pairs of amino acids. This process is crucial for digestion and nutrient absorption.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276083,"front":"How does the process of expiration work?","back":"During expiration, the internal intercostal muscles contract, the ribs move downwards and inwards, and the diaphragm relaxes and moves up. This results in a decreased volume of the thorax, an increased air pressure, and air is forced out of the lungs.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":6,"explanation":"Expiration is a passive process primarily driven by the relaxation of muscles involved in inhalation. The recoil of elastic fibers in the lungs and chest wall also aids in pushing air out. This process allows for the removal of carbon dioxide from the body and helps regulate gas exchange.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276079,"front":"Describe the role of lipase and bile salts in lipid digestion.","back":"Lipase, produced in the pancreas, hydrolyzes the ester bond in triglycerides to form monoglycerides and fatty acids. Bile salts, produced in the liver, emulsify lipids to form tiny droplets called micelles, increasing the surface area for lipase to act on.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":7,"explanation":"Lipase plays a crucial role in breaking down triglycerides into smaller components for absorption. Bile salts aid in this process by emulsifying lipids, increasing their surface area for lipase to work on. This enhances the efficiency of lipid digestion and absorption in the small intestine.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276077,"front":"Explain the process of carbohydrate digestion in mammals.","back":"Carbohydrates require more than one enzyme to hydrolyze them into monosaccharides. Amylase, produced by the pancreas and salivary glands, hydrolyzes polysaccharides into the disaccharide maltose. Membrane-bound enzymes like sucrase and lactase then hydrolyze sucrose and lactose into monosaccharides.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":8,"explanation":"Carbohydrate digestion in mammals involves multiple enzymes. Amylase breaks down polysaccharides into maltose, while sucrase and lactase further hydrolyze disaccharides into monosaccharides. This process occurs in the pancreas, salivary glands, and on the cell membrane.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276074,"front":"How does the structure of alveoli facilitate gas exchange?","back":"Alveoli are tiny air sacs, with 300 million in each human lung, creating a large surface area for gas exchange. Their walls are very thin, minimizing diffusion distance. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries, which facilitates the removal of exchanged gases and maintains a concentration gradient.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":9,"explanation":"The structure of alveoli facilitates gas exchange due to their large surface area, thin walls minimizing diffusion distance, and surrounding network of capillaries. These factors optimize the exchange of gases and maintain a concentration gradient for efficient respiration.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276069,"front":"Define the role of the diaphragm in the process of breathing.","back":"During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing the volume of the thorax and reducing air pressure, which forces air into the lungs. During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves up, decreasing the volume of the thorax, increasing air pressure, and forcing air out of the lungs.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":10,"explanation":"The diaphragm is a crucial muscle for breathing as it separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Its contraction and relaxation create changes in thoracic volume and air pressure, facilitating the inhalation and exhalation of air in the lungs. This process is essential for gas exchange and maintaining proper oxygen levels in the body.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276017,"front":"Describe the relationship between the size of an organism or structure and its surface area to volume ratio.","back":"The relationship between the size of an organism or structure and its surface area to volume ratio plays a significant role in determining the types of adaptations an organism will have. Small organisms have a large surface area in comparison to their volume, allowing for efficient exchange of substances. Larger organisms have a smaller surface area compared to their volume, necessitating adaptations for efficient transport of substances.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":11,"explanation":"The response explains that the surface area to volume ratio affects an organism's adaptations. It highlights how smaller organisms have a larger surface area to volume ratio, enabling efficient substance exchange, while larger organisms have a smaller ratio, requiring adaptations for substance transport. This insight emphasizes the importance of surface area to volume ratio in shaping an organism's characteristics.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276047,"front":"Describe the mechanism of breathing in humans.","back":"Ventilation is the mechanism of breathing in humans and it involves the diaphragm and antagonistic interaction between the external and internal intercostal muscles in bringing about pressure changes in the thoracic cavity.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":12,"explanation":"The response accurately explains the mechanism of breathing in humans, detailing the role of ventilation and the involvement of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles in creating pressure changes in the thoracic cavity. This process allows for inhalation and exhalation to occur effectively.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276045,"front":"What adaptations do xerophytic plants have to prevent water loss by evaporation?","back":"Xerophytic plants have many adaptations to prevent water loss by evaporation. Their cuticle is very thick, they roll up to cover the stomata, the leaves are hairy to trap water vapor, and the stomata are often sunken in pits.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":13,"explanation":"Xerophytic plants have evolved various adaptations to thrive in arid environments. Their thick cuticle reduces water loss, while rolling up or having hairy leaves helps retain moisture. Sunken stomata in pits further minimize water loss by reducing exposure to dry air.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276043,"front":"Define the role of stomata in plants.","back":"Stomata are tiny pores mainly on leaves that can open or close, determined by the guard cells surrounding them. This is a mechanism to help prevent excessive water loss by evaporation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":14,"explanation":"Stomata play a crucial role in regulating gas exchange in plants, allowing for the intake of carbon dioxide essential for photosynthesis while also controlling water loss through transpiration. The opening and closing of stomata are finely tuned processes influenced by various environmental factors to maintain plant hydration and optimize photosynthetic efficiency.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276042,"front":"How do dicotyledonous plants exchange gases?","back":"Dicotyledonous plants exchange gases through stomata, which are tiny pores mainly on leaves. These pores can open or close, determined by the guard cells surrounding them.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":15,"explanation":"Dicotyledonous plants have stomata primarily on their leaves for gas exchange. Stomata open to allow gas exchange and close to prevent water loss. Guard cells regulate stomatal opening and closing based on environmental conditions like light, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276040,"front":"Describe the process of gas exchange in fish.","back":"Fish exchange gases across their gills, which are made of gill lamellae and filaments. The process is dependent on the counter-current principle where water flows over the gills in the opposite direction to the flow of blood in the capillaries. This ensures that a diffusion gradient is maintained across the entire length of the gill lamellae.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":16,"explanation":"Fish have specialized structures called gills that facilitate gas exchange. The gill lamellae increase surface area for oxygen absorption, while the counter-current flow of water and blood optimizes oxygen diffusion. This efficient process ensures continuous oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide release.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276038,"front":"Define Fick’s Law.","back":"Fick’s Law is used to calculate the rate of diffusion. It states that Diffusion = (surface area X difference in concentration) / length of diffusion path.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":17,"explanation":"Fick's Law is a fundamental principle in understanding the process of diffusion. It quantifies the rate of diffusion, taking into account factors such as surface area, concentration gradient, and diffusion path length. This law is widely applied in various scientific fields, including biology, chemistry, and physics.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276036,"front":"How does the production of lactate during flight affect gas exchange in insects?","back":"When an insect is in flight, the muscle cells start to respire anaerobically to produce lactate. This lowers the water potential of the cells, and therefore water moves from the tracheoles into the cells by osmosis, aiding in gas exchange.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":18,"explanation":"During flight, insects produce lactate through anaerobic respiration in their muscle cells. This lowers the water potential of the cells, causing water to move from the tracheoles into the cells by osmosis. This movement of water aids in gas exchange, facilitating the exchange of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in the insect's body.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276034,"front":"Explain how gas exchange occurs in insects.","back":"Gas exchange in insects involves a tracheal system (tracheae, tracheoles, and spiracles). Gas can be exchanged by diffusion, as when cells respire they use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide, creating a concentration gradient from the tracheoles to the atmosphere. The second method of gas exchange is mass transport, in which an insect contracts and relaxes their abdominal muscles to move gases en masse.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":19,"explanation":"Gas exchange in insects occurs through a tracheal system, consisting of tracheae, tracheoles, and spiracles. This allows for diffusion of gases, driven by concentration gradients. Additionally, insects use mass transport by contracting and relaxing abdominal muscles to move gases in bulk.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276032,"front":"Define the adaptations larger organisms have due to their surface area to volume ratio.","back":"Larger organisms typically have a smaller surface area compared to their volume and a larger distance from the middle to the outside. They usually have a higher metabolic rate, which demands efficient transport of waste out of cells and reactants into the cells. As a result, they have adaptations that help make the exchange across surfaces more efficient.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":20,"explanation":"Larger organisms have a smaller surface area to volume ratio, leading to a greater distance for nutrients and waste to travel. This necessitates a higher metabolic rate and efficient exchange across surfaces. Thus, they adapt to optimize this exchange for survival.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1276026,"front":"How does the surface area to volume ratio affect the exchange of substances in small organisms like amoeba?","back":"In small organisms like amoeba, the large surface area in comparison to their volume means that there is a big surface for exchange of substances, but also a smaller distance from the outside of the organism to the middle of it. As a result, very small organisms can simply exchange substances across their surface.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":21,"explanation":"The surface area to volume ratio impacts exchange of substances in small organisms like amoeba because it determines the efficiency of nutrient intake and waste removal. A high ratio allows for more effective diffusion, supporting the organism's metabolic needs.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"00Bi1","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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