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Describe the concept of aggression.

Aggression is an act carried out with the intention to harm another person. This harm can be physical or psychological.

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"Describe the concept of aggression."	"Aggression is an act carried out with the intention to harm another person. This harm can be physical or psychological."
"Differentiate between hostile/reactive aggression and instrumental/proactive aggression."	"Hostile/reactive aggression is driven by anger and hurt, characterized by displays of rage and impulsivity. Instrumental/proactive aggression serves as a means to an end, where aggression is carried out to solve a problem. This is cool, emotionally detached and often pre-mediated."
"What is the role of the limbic system in aggression?"	"The limbic system, particularly the amygdala, plays a key role in aggression. Increased amygdala activity is associated with aggression as it has a role in the assessment of threats and challenges."
"How does serotonin influence aggression?"	"Serotonin is a neurotransmitter thought to inhibit aggressive responses to emotional stimuli and increase self-control. Low levels of serotonin are associated with increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression, and a general lack of self-control."
"What did Gospic et al (2011) discover about the amygdala's role in aggression?"	"Gospic et al (2011) discovered that amygdala activity increased in response to an aggressive game. More activity was seen in the amygdala when the participant received an unfair offer, which they then rejected. Lowering this activity also lowered aggression."
"What did Mann et al (1990) and Virkkunen et al (1994) find about serotonin and aggression?"	"Mann et al (1990) found that dexfenfluramine, a drug which reduces serotonin, increased measures of hostility and aggression in males. Virkkunen et al (1994) found lower levels of a serotonin breakdown product, and increased sleep disruption, in impulsive offenders compared to non-impulsive offenders, suggesting a low level of serotonin is linked with aggression."
"Describe the role of the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in aggressive behavior."	"The amygdala and the OFC are thought to act together in aggressive behavior. This suggests that the role of brain structure in aggression is more complex than first thought, involving many different structures."
"How does serotonin activity influence aggressive behavior?"	"Increased serotonin activity has been linked to decreased aggression. For example, participants given a drug which boosted serotonin activity were less likely to give electric shocks in a laboratory-based game than a placebo group."
"Define the 'challenge hypothesis' in relation to testosterone and aggression."	"The 'challenge hypothesis' suggests that threats to male status should produce a surge in testosterone, which is thought to act on areas of the brain controlling aggression."
"How does testosterone influence aggression according to Dabbs et al (1987) and Dolan et al (2001)?"	"Both studies found a correlation between higher testosterone levels and increased aggression. Dabbs et al were able to differentiate between violent and non-violent criminals based on testosterone levels, while Dolan et al found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression in male offenders."
"What did Wagner et al (1979) find about the link between testosterone and aggressive behaviour?"	"Wagner et al found that castrated male mice showed decreased aggression, which then increased when given testosterone again, supporting the link between testosterone and aggressive behaviour."
"What did Popma et al (2007) suggest about the relationship between testosterone, cortisol and aggression?"	"Popma et al suggested that high levels of testosterone only lead to aggression when levels of cortisol are low, indicating that the combination of testosterone and other hormones may be a better explanation of aggression than testosterone alone."
"Describe the findings of Coccaro et al (1997) in their twin studies on aggression."	"Coccaro et al (1997) found that up to 50% of the variance in aggressive behaviour can be explained by genetics. There was a 50% concordance rate amongst identical (MZ) twins, and a 19% concordance rate for non-identical (DZ) twins for physical aggression. For verbal aggression, the concordance rates were 28% for MZs and 7% for DZs."
"How do adoption studies contribute to understanding the genetic basis for aggression?"	"Adoption studies are useful for separating the effects of genetics (nature- biological parents) and upbringing (nurture- adoptive parents). For example, Waldman and Waldman (2002) found that 41% of the variance in aggressive behaviour can be attributed to genes, through their meta-analysis of adoption studies."
"Define the role of the MAOA gene in aggression."	"MAOA (Monoamine oxidase A) is an enzyme responsible for ‘mopping up’ neurotransmitters after they have been transmitted across a synapse. Dysfunction in the MAOA gene leads to dysfunction in MAOA production, which affects the levels of serotonin in the brain, increasing the likelihood of aggressive behaviour."
"What did Brunner et al (1993) discover about the MAOA gene and aggression?"	"Brunner et al (1993) found a link between a gene responsible for producing MAOA and aggression. A study of a Dutch family found that many of its male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner, and a large proportion had been involved in serious crimes of violence. These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA."
"How do gene-environment interactions influence aggression?"	"Low MAOA activity is linked with aggression only in combination with an environmental influence, such as a traumatic life event."
"Describe the findings of Frazzetto et al (2007) regarding the link between the low-activity MAOA gene variant and aggression."	"Frazzetto et al (2007) found a link between the low-activity MAOA gene variant and aggression, but only in those who experienced childhood sexual or physical abuse. Those who had not been abused did not show high levels of aggression, even with the low-activity MAOA gene."
"Define the diathesis-stress explanation in the context of aggression."	"The diathesis-stress explanation suggests an interaction between genes and the environment. Genes may only create a vulnerability to aggression, when combined with certain environmental influences."
"How does the complexity of genetic influences on aggression affect the usefulness of genetic explanations?"	"There are likely to be multiple genetic influences on aggression, for example genes involved in MAOA production, serotonin production, and many others. This decreases the usefulness of this explanation, as a particular genetic cause is too hard to identify."
"Do different methods of measuring aggression affect the validity of research findings on genetic factors in aggression?"	"Yes, there are different methods of measuring ‘aggression’ in studies in this area, for example self-reports, observations, and others. This creates questions over the validity of the research findings, so reducing the support for genetic factors in aggression."
"How might genetic factors explain the aggressive behavior of Eduardo and his brother?"	"Genetic factors, such as the MAOA gene, could influence the aggressive behavior of Eduardo and his brother. If they inherited a low-activity variant of this gene, it could make them more prone to aggression, especially if they have also experienced stressful environmental factors."

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Describe the concept of aggression.

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Aggression is an act carried out with the intention to harm another person. This harm can be physical or psychological.

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[{"id":1632390,"front":"Describe the concept of aggression.","back":"Aggression is an act carried out with the intention to harm another person. This harm can be physical or psychological.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Aggression is a behavior driven by the intent to cause harm to another individual, whether it's physical or psychological. It can manifest in various forms and is influenced by factors such as genetics, environment, and social learning.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632391,"front":"Differentiate between hostile/reactive aggression and instrumental/proactive aggression.","back":"Hostile/reactive aggression is driven by anger and hurt, characterized by displays of rage and impulsivity. Instrumental/proactive aggression serves as a means to an end, where aggression is carried out to solve a problem. This is cool, emotionally detached and often pre-mediated.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Hostile/reactive aggression is more impulsive and emotional, often a response to a perceived threat or provocation. In contrast, instrumental/proactive aggression is strategic, planned, and used as a tool to achieve a specific goal or outcome. The distinction lies in the underlying motivations and intentions behind the aggressive behavior.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632392,"front":"What is the role of the limbic system in aggression?","back":"The limbic system, particularly the amygdala, plays a key role in aggression. Increased amygdala activity is associated with aggression as it has a role in the assessment of threats and challenges.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The amygdala, a part of the limbic system, is involved in processing emotions, including fear and aggression. It evaluates potential threats and can trigger aggressive responses. This is supported by research showing increased amygdala activity in aggressive individuals.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632393,"front":"How does serotonin influence aggression?","back":"Serotonin is a neurotransmitter thought to inhibit aggressive responses to emotional stimuli and increase self-control. Low levels of serotonin are associated with increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression, and a general lack of self-control.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Serotonin plays a crucial role in regulating mood, emotions, and behavior. It is believed to have a calming effect on the brain, helping to reduce impulsive and aggressive tendencies. Low levels of serotonin can disrupt this regulation, leading to heightened aggression and impulsivity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632394,"front":"What did Gospic et al (2011) discover about the amygdala's role in aggression?","back":"Gospic et al (2011) discovered that amygdala activity increased in response to an aggressive game. More activity was seen in the amygdala when the participant received an unfair offer, which they then rejected. Lowering this activity also lowered aggression.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The study by Gospic et al (2011) revealed that the amygdala plays a crucial role in processing aggression by showing increased activity during aggressive situations. This heightened activity was particularly notable when faced with unfairness, suggesting a link between amygdala response, decision-making, and aggression regulation. By modulating this activity, aggression levels could be influenced.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632399,"front":"What did Mann et al (1990) and Virkkunen et al (1994) find about serotonin and aggression?","back":"Mann et al (1990) found that dexfenfluramine, a drug which reduces serotonin, increased measures of hostility and aggression in males. Virkkunen et al (1994) found lower levels of a serotonin breakdown product, and increased sleep disruption, in impulsive offenders compared to non-impulsive offenders, suggesting a low level of serotonin is linked with aggression.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Mann et al (1990) discovered that reducing serotonin levels led to increased aggression, while Virkkunen et al (1994) found a correlation between low serotonin levels and impulsivity in offenders. These studies highlight the role of serotonin in regulating aggressive behavior.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632412,"front":"Describe the role of the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in aggressive behavior.","back":"The amygdala and the OFC are thought to act together in aggressive behavior. This suggests that the role of brain structure in aggression is more complex than first thought, involving many different structures.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The amygdala is associated with processing emotions, including fear and aggression, while the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and impulse control. Their interaction suggests that aggression is influenced by a complex interplay of emotional processing and cognitive control.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632424,"front":"How does serotonin activity influence aggressive behavior?","back":"Increased serotonin activity has been linked to decreased aggression. For example, participants given a drug which boosted serotonin activity were less likely to give electric shocks in a laboratory-based game than a placebo group.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating mood and behavior. Higher levels of serotonin are associated with decreased aggression, while lower levels are linked to increased aggression. This neurotransmitter helps to inhibit impulsive and aggressive behaviors by modulating communication between brain cells. The study mentioned demonstrates how manipulating serotonin levels can impact aggressive tendencies.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632440,"front":"Define the 'challenge hypothesis' in relation to testosterone and aggression.","back":"The 'challenge hypothesis' suggests that threats to male status should produce a surge in testosterone, which is thought to act on areas of the brain controlling aggression.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The challenge hypothesis proposes that testosterone levels increase in response to challenges to male social status, potentially influencing aggressive behavior through its impact on brain regions regulating aggression. This theory highlights the dynamic relationship between social factors, hormones, and behavior in males.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632448,"front":"How does testosterone influence aggression according to Dabbs et al (1987) and Dolan et al (2001)?","back":"Both studies found a correlation between higher testosterone levels and increased aggression. Dabbs et al were able to differentiate between violent and non-violent criminals based on testosterone levels, while Dolan et al found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression in male offenders.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Testosterone is often linked to behaviors associated with dominance and competition. The studies highlight its role in modulating aggressive tendencies, suggesting that biological factors can influence social behaviors. Understanding this relationship can inform approaches in psychology and criminology, particularly in addressing violent behavior.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632449,"front":"What did Wagner et al (1979) find about the link between testosterone and aggressive behaviour?","back":"Wagner et al found that castrated male mice showed decreased aggression, which then increased when given testosterone again, supporting the link between testosterone and aggressive behaviour.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Wagner et al.'s research highlights the biological underpinnings of aggression, suggesting that hormonal levels can significantly influence behavior. This study on mice provides a model for understanding aggression in other species, including humans, and emphasizes the role of endocrine factors in behavioral expression.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632450,"front":"What did Popma et al (2007) suggest about the relationship between testosterone, cortisol and aggression?","back":"Popma et al suggested that high levels of testosterone only lead to aggression when levels of cortisol are low, indicating that the combination of testosterone and other hormones may be a better explanation of aggression than testosterone alone.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632468,"front":"Describe the findings of Coccaro et al (1997) in their twin studies on aggression.","back":"Coccaro et al (1997) found that up to 50% of the variance in aggressive behaviour can be explained by genetics. There was a 50% concordance rate amongst identical (MZ) twins, and a 19% concordance rate for non-identical (DZ) twins for physical aggression. For verbal aggression, the concordance rates were 28% for MZs and 7% for DZs.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632476,"front":"How do adoption studies contribute to understanding the genetic basis for aggression?","back":"Adoption studies are useful for separating the effects of genetics (nature- biological parents) and upbringing (nurture- adoptive parents). For example, Waldman and Waldman (2002) found that 41% of the variance in aggressive behaviour can be attributed to genes, through their meta-analysis of adoption studies.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Adoption studies provide a unique opportunity to disentangle the influence of genetics and environment on traits like aggression. By comparing adopted individuals with their biological and adoptive families, researchers can estimate the heritability of aggression, shedding light on its genetic basis. This approach helps to clarify the relative contributions of nature and nurture to complex behaviors.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632477,"front":"Define the role of the MAOA gene in aggression.","back":"MAOA (Monoamine oxidase A) is an enzyme responsible for ‘mopping up’ neurotransmitters after they have been transmitted across a synapse. Dysfunction in the MAOA gene leads to dysfunction in MAOA production, which affects the levels of serotonin in the brain, increasing the likelihood of aggressive behaviour.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The MAOA gene plays a crucial role in regulating neurotransmitter levels, particularly serotonin, which influences mood and behavior. Variations in this gene can lead to altered enzyme activity, potentially resulting in heightened aggression. This connection highlights the complex interplay between genetics and behavioral outcomes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632478,"front":"What did Brunner et al (1993) discover about the MAOA gene and aggression?","back":"Brunner et al (1993) found a link between a gene responsible for producing MAOA and aggression. A study of a Dutch family found that many of its male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner, and a large proportion had been involved in serious crimes of violence. These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632479,"front":"How do gene-environment interactions influence aggression?","back":"Low MAOA activity is linked with aggression only in combination with an environmental influence, such as a traumatic life event.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Gene-environment interactions highlight the complexity of behavior, showing that genetics alone do not determine outcomes. In this case, low MAOA activity may predispose individuals to aggression, but without environmental triggers, such as trauma, this genetic risk may not manifest, emphasizing the interplay between biology and experience.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632480,"front":"Describe the findings of Frazzetto et al (2007) regarding the link between the low-activity MAOA gene variant and aggression.","back":"Frazzetto et al (2007) found a link between the low-activity MAOA gene variant and aggression, but only in those who experienced childhood sexual or physical abuse. Those who had not been abused did not show high levels of aggression, even with the low-activity MAOA gene.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The study highlights the interplay between genetics and environmental factors in shaping behavior. It suggests that genetic predispositions, like the low-activity MAOA variant, may not manifest as aggression without the influence of adverse childhood experiences, emphasizing the importance of context in behavioral outcomes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632481,"front":"Define the diathesis-stress explanation in the context of aggression.","back":"The diathesis-stress explanation suggests an interaction between genes and the environment. Genes may only create a vulnerability to aggression, when combined with certain environmental influences.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The diathesis-stress explanation proposes that both genetic predispositions and environmental factors interact to influence aggression. Genetic factors alone may not lead to aggression, but when combined with specific environmental triggers, they can contribute to the development of aggressive behavior.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632482,"front":"How does the complexity of genetic influences on aggression affect the usefulness of genetic explanations?","back":"There are likely to be multiple genetic influences on aggression, for example genes involved in MAOA production, serotonin production, and many others. This decreases the usefulness of this explanation, as a particular genetic cause is too hard to identify.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632483,"front":"Do different methods of measuring aggression affect the validity of research findings on genetic factors in aggression?","back":"Yes, there are different methods of measuring ‘aggression’ in studies in this area, for example self-reports, observations, and others. This creates questions over the validity of the research findings, so reducing the support for genetic factors in aggression.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1632484,"front":"How might genetic factors explain the aggressive behavior of Eduardo and his brother?","back":"Genetic factors, such as the MAOA gene, could influence the aggressive behavior of Eduardo and his brother. If they inherited a low-activity variant of this gene, it could make them more prone to aggression, especially if they have also experienced stressful environmental factors.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Genetic factors like the MAOA gene can impact aggression. Inheriting a low-activity variant may increase aggression, especially when combined with stressful environments. Shared genetic makeup between Eduardo and his brother could contribute to their similar aggressive tendencies.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"yIuYT","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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