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Define 'Ethical Issues' in the context of research methods.

Ethical issues arise when a conflict emerges in research, between the rights of participants and the intended aims of the research. They can include concerns about informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy and confidentiality.

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"Define 'Ethical Issues' in the context of research methods."	"Ethical issues arise when a conflict emerges in research, between the rights of participants and the intended aims of the research. They can include concerns about informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy and confidentiality."
"Describe 'Informed Consent' in research and how to deal with it."	"Informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims and purposes of a study, so that they can agree to take part in full knowledge of what the research is about. If full informed consent cannot be gained, researchers could gain presumptive consent, prior general consent, or retrospective consent."
"Explain 'Deception' in research and how it can be addressed."	"Deception in research involves deliberately lying to, or misleading the participants. If deception has occurred, participants cannot give informed consent. To deal with deception, participants should be fully debriefed, where the aims of the study, deceptions, and reasons for any deception are revealed. At this stage, participants should be given the right to withhold their data."
"What does 'Protection from harm' mean in the context of research and how is it ensured?"	"Protection from harm means that participants should be protected from physical or psychological harm in a study. The risk of harm should be no greater than in everyday life. In the debriefing, participants should be reassured about their performance in the study, and offered counselling if appropriate."
"Define 'Privacy and confidentiality' in research."	"Privacy refers to not invading people’s personal lives as part of the study. Confidentiality is having any personal data, such as names, or information that could lead to the participant being identified, kept hidden."
"Describe the role of peer review in psychological research."	"Peer review is used to assess the quality of research conducted by psychologists in terms of its validity and reliability. A small group of experts scrutinize the research and how it was conducted, to ensure that the findings and conclusions are genuine. The reviewers are anonymous and unknown to the researcher. The aims of peer review are to validate the quality of research, allocate research funding, and suggest amendments or improvements before research is published."
"Do psychological research often have implications for the economy? Give an example."	"Yes, psychological research often has implications for the economy. For example, attachment research has shown the importance of the role of the father, meaning that today it is recognized that both parents are equally capable of raising the child. This has implications in terms of shared parental leave, and the sharing of childcare duties at home so both parents are able to work."
"Define the term 'reliability' in the context of psychological research."	"In psychological research, reliability refers to the consistency of results from a study. It is a measure of consistency, producing the same results over and over again."
"How can ethical issues in psychology be dealt with?"	"Ethical issues in psychology can be dealt with by referring participants by number rather than name, or by the use of initials. In the debrief, participants are reassured that their personal information will be kept confidential."
"How can psychological research, such as studies on depression and CBT, impact the economy?"	"Studies have shown that depression can be treated using CBT, and that patients who undergo CBT alongside drug therapies are more likely to be able to function normally in their day-to-day lives and are less likely to be hospitalized. This can reduce pressure on public services such as the NHS and potentially increase the amount of tax revenue that can be raised."
"Define the concept of reliability in a study."	"Reliability in a study refers to the consistency of the results when the same method is used. If the same results are produced, the study can be said to be reliable."
"Describe the test-retest method for assessing reliability."	"The test-retest method involves giving participants the same questionnaire or tasks in an experiment on more than one occasion. The participant’s scores are then correlated and a statistical test is done to check the degree of similarity. If there is a significant positive correlation, the study is likely to be reliable."
"How can reliability be improved in observational research?"	"Reliability in observational research can be improved by fully operationalising behavioural categories, ensuring they do not overlap and cover all possible behaviours. This makes the categories as objective as possible, and less open to individual interpretation."
"What does validity refer to in a psychological study?"	"Validity refers to whether the psychological study truly measured what it intended to measure, and whether the results are a true reflection of behaviour in other contexts."
"Explain the concept of internal validity."	"Internal validity is related to what actually happens in a study; whether the study measured what it intended to measure. It refers to whether the independent variable really has had an effect on the dependent variable, or whether the dependent variable was caused by some other extraneous or confounding variable."
"How can reliability be improved in experiments?"	"The reliability of experiments can be improved by controlling the conditions as far as possible, so that complete replication is possible. This includes publishing full details of the method and materials used, and using standardised instructions."
"How can reliability be improved in interviews?"	"Reliability in interviews can be improved by using the same interviewer each time or ensuring the questions are not leading or ambiguous. Structured interviews are much more likely to be reliable than unstructured interviews."
"Define 'External validity' in the context of a research study."	"External validity refers to whether the findings of a study can be generalised beyond the present study."
"What are the three types of external validity?"	"The three types of external validity are population validity, ecological validity, and temporal validity."
"What is 'Population validity' and provide an example."	"Population validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other populations of people. For example, if a study only tested American men, its findings may not apply to people from other cultures or females."
"Explain 'Ecological validity' and provide an example."	"Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other situations outside of the research study. For example, if a study used a task that is very unlike anything that would occur in everyday life, its ecological validity would be lowered."
"What does 'Temporal validity' mean and provide an example."	"Temporal validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other time periods. For example, a study conducted in 1950s USA may not apply to today's context."
"How can validity be improved in experiments?"	"Validity in experiments can be improved by using a control group to compare the results of the experimental group, and by using single and double-blind procedures to reduce the chance of extraneous variables affecting the experiment."
"How can validity be improved in observations?"	"Validity in observations can be improved by conducting covert observations, where the participant is unaware they are being observed, and by having clear and unambiguous behavioural categories."
"How can validity be improved in questionnaires?"	"Validity in questionnaires can be improved by keeping results anonymous to increase the chances that the participant will answer truthfully, and by including a lie scale, which is a set of questions designed to test the truthfulness of a participant’s answers."

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[{"id":1591540,"front":"Define 'Ethical Issues' in the context of research methods.","back":"Ethical issues arise when a conflict emerges in research, between the rights of participants and the intended aims of the research. They can include concerns about informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy and confidentiality.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Ethical issues in research methods pertain to conflicts between participant rights and research goals. These can involve informed consent, deception, participant well-being, and privacy. Adhering to ethical standards is crucial for maintaining trust and integrity in research.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591541,"front":"Describe 'Informed Consent' in research and how to deal with it.","back":"Informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims and purposes of a study, so that they can agree to take part in full knowledge of what the research is about. If full informed consent cannot be gained, researchers could gain presumptive consent, prior general consent, or retrospective consent.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Informed consent is crucial in research to ensure participants understand the study's objectives before agreeing to participate. Researchers must explore alternative consent methods if full informed consent is not feasible, such as presumptive, prior general, or retrospective consent.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591542,"front":"Explain 'Deception' in research and how it can be addressed.","back":"Deception in research involves deliberately lying to, or misleading the participants. If deception has occurred, participants cannot give informed consent. To deal with deception, participants should be fully debriefed, where the aims of the study, deceptions, and reasons for any deception are revealed. At this stage, participants should be given the right to withhold their data.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Deception can compromise the ethical integrity of research, impacting trust and participant welfare. Addressing it through debriefing not only clarifies the study's purpose but also respects participants' autonomy. This process fosters transparency and allows for informed consent post-study, enhancing ethical standards in research practices.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591543,"front":"What does 'Protection from harm' mean in the context of research and how is it ensured?","back":"Protection from harm means that participants should be protected from physical or psychological harm in a study. The risk of harm should be no greater than in everyday life. In the debriefing, participants should be reassured about their performance in the study, and offered counselling if appropriate.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"In research, safeguarding participants is paramount to uphold ethical standards. This involves thorough risk assessments and implementing measures to minimize potential harm. Debriefing serves not only to clarify the study's purpose but also to provide emotional support, ensuring participants leave the study feeling secure and valued.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591544,"front":"Define 'Privacy and confidentiality' in research.","back":"Privacy refers to not invading people’s personal lives as part of the study. Confidentiality is having any personal data, such as names, or information that could lead to the participant being identified, kept hidden.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591545,"front":"Describe the role of peer review in psychological research.","back":"Peer review is used to assess the quality of research conducted by psychologists in terms of its validity and reliability. A small group of experts scrutinize the research and how it was conducted, to ensure that the findings and conclusions are genuine. The reviewers are anonymous and unknown to the researcher. The aims of peer review are to validate the quality of research, allocate research funding, and suggest amendments or improvements before research is published.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Peer review in psychological research is crucial for ensuring the credibility and accuracy of findings. It involves independent experts evaluating the research methods, results, and conclusions before publication. This process helps maintain high research standards, identify potential flaws, and improve the overall quality of psychological research.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591546,"front":"Do psychological research often have implications for the economy? Give an example.","back":"Yes, psychological research often has implications for the economy. For example, attachment research has shown the importance of the role of the father, meaning that today it is recognized that both parents are equally capable of raising the child. This has implications in terms of shared parental leave, and the sharing of childcare duties at home so both parents are able to work.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Psychological research can influence economic policies and workplace dynamics. Understanding parental roles can lead to more equitable family leave policies, promoting workforce participation among both parents. This shift not only supports child development but also enhances economic productivity by maximizing the potential of both parents in the labor market.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591547,"front":"Define the term 'reliability' in the context of psychological research.","back":"In psychological research, reliability refers to the consistency of results from a study. It is a measure of consistency, producing the same results over and over again.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Reliability is crucial in psychological research as it ensures that findings are stable and replicable across different contexts and populations. High reliability strengthens the validity of conclusions drawn from the data, allowing researchers to confidently build on previous work and develop theories.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591548,"front":"How can ethical issues in psychology be dealt with?","back":"Ethical issues in psychology can be dealt with by referring participants by number rather than name, or by the use of initials. In the debrief, participants are reassured that their personal information will be kept confidential.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Maintaining confidentiality is crucial in psychological research to protect participants' privacy and foster trust. Using identifiers like numbers or initials minimizes the risk of personal data exposure. Additionally, debriefing reinforces ethical standards, ensuring participants feel secure and informed about their involvement in the study.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591558,"front":"How can psychological research, such as studies on depression and CBT, impact the economy?","back":"Studies have shown that depression can be treated using CBT, and that patients who undergo CBT alongside drug therapies are more likely to be able to function normally in their day-to-day lives and are less likely to be hospitalized. This can reduce pressure on public services such as the NHS and potentially increase the amount of tax revenue that can be raised.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Psychological research on depression and CBT can positively impact the economy by reducing healthcare costs, increasing workforce productivity, and potentially boosting tax revenue. Effective treatments like CBT can lead to better outcomes for individuals, less strain on public services, and overall economic benefits.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591566,"front":"Define the concept of reliability in a study.","back":"Reliability in a study refers to the consistency of the results when the same method is used. If the same results are produced, the study can be said to be reliable.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Reliability is crucial for establishing trust in research findings. It ensures that measurements are stable and repeatable, which is essential for validating theories and making informed decisions. High reliability minimizes random errors, allowing researchers to focus on the true effects of the variables being studied.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591571,"front":"Describe the test-retest method for assessing reliability.","back":"The test-retest method involves giving participants the same questionnaire or tasks in an experiment on more than one occasion. The participant’s scores are then correlated and a statistical test is done to check the degree of similarity. If there is a significant positive correlation, the study is likely to be reliable.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The test-retest method is crucial for establishing consistency in measurements over time. By administering the same test multiple times, researchers can identify any fluctuations in responses that may indicate issues with the instrument or the participants' understanding. High correlation suggests stability, enhancing the credibility of findings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591577,"front":"How can reliability be improved in observational research?","back":"Reliability in observational research can be improved by fully operationalising behavioural categories, ensuring they do not overlap and cover all possible behaviours. This makes the categories as objective as possible, and less open to individual interpretation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Operationalizing behavioral categories enhances clarity and consistency in data collection. By defining specific, non-overlapping categories, researchers minimize ambiguity, which can lead to varied interpretations. This structured approach fosters replicability, allowing different observers to yield similar results, thus strengthening the study's overall validity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591583,"front":"What does validity refer to in a psychological study?","back":"Validity refers to whether the psychological study truly measured what it intended to measure, and whether the results are a true reflection of behaviour in other contexts.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Validity is crucial in research as it ensures that findings can be trusted and applied beyond the study's specific conditions. High validity enhances the generalizability of results, allowing researchers to draw meaningful conclusions about human behavior and inform practical applications in psychology and related fields.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591592,"front":"Explain the concept of internal validity.","back":"Internal validity is related to what actually happens in a study; whether the study measured what it intended to measure. It refers to whether the independent variable really has had an effect on the dependent variable, or whether the dependent variable was caused by some other extraneous or confounding variable.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591604,"front":"How can reliability be improved in experiments?","back":"The reliability of experiments can be improved by controlling the conditions as far as possible, so that complete replication is possible. This includes publishing full details of the method and materials used, and using standardised instructions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591615,"front":"How can reliability be improved in interviews?","back":"Reliability in interviews can be improved by using the same interviewer each time or ensuring the questions are not leading or ambiguous. Structured interviews are much more likely to be reliable than unstructured interviews.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591626,"front":"Define 'External validity' in the context of a research study.","back":"External validity refers to whether the findings of a study can be generalised beyond the present study.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591631,"front":"What are the three types of external validity?","back":"The three types of external validity are population validity, ecological validity, and temporal validity.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"External validity refers to the extent to which research findings can be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a study. Population validity relates to the generalizability of results to different populations, ecological validity to real-world settings, and temporal validity to the relevance of findings over time.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591633,"front":"What is 'Population validity' and provide an example.","back":"Population validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other populations of people. For example, if a study only tested American men, its findings may not apply to people from other cultures or females.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591634,"front":"Explain 'Ecological validity' and provide an example.","back":"Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other situations outside of the research study. For example, if a study used a task that is very unlike anything that would occur in everyday life, its ecological validity would be lowered.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591635,"front":"What does 'Temporal validity' mean and provide an example.","back":"Temporal validity refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other time periods. For example, a study conducted in 1950s USA may not apply to today's context.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591636,"front":"How can validity be improved in experiments?","back":"Validity in experiments can be improved by using a control group to compare the results of the experimental group, and by using single and double-blind procedures to reduce the chance of extraneous variables affecting the experiment.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591637,"front":"How can validity be improved in observations?","back":"Validity in observations can be improved by conducting covert observations, where the participant is unaware they are being observed, and by having clear and unambiguous behavioural categories.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Improving validity in observations enhances the accuracy of data collected. Covert observations reduce the risk of participant reactivity, leading to more natural behaviors. Clear behavioral categories ensure consistency and reliability in data interpretation, minimizing subjective bias and enhancing the overall robustness of the findings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591638,"front":"How can validity be improved in questionnaires?","back":"Validity in questionnaires can be improved by keeping results anonymous to increase the chances that the participant will answer truthfully, and by including a lie scale, which is a set of questions designed to test the truthfulness of a participant’s answers.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Improving validity in questionnaires is crucial for obtaining accurate data. Anonymity encourages honest responses, reducing social desirability bias. Incorporating a lie scale helps identify inconsistencies, ensuring that the data reflects true attitudes or behaviors. This dual approach enhances the overall reliability of the findings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"t7STi","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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