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Describe the concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins according to Gottesman's study.

The concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is 48% according to Gottesman's study.

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"Describe the concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins according to Gottesman's study."	"The concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is 48% according to Gottesman's study."
"Define the term 'polygenic' in the context of schizophrenia."	"'Polygenic' means that lots of different genes contribute to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia."
"What does the term 'aetiologically heterogeneous' mean in relation to schizophrenia?"	"'Aetiologically heterogeneous' means that different combinations of genes are implicated in the disorder of schizophrenia."
"What did Tienari et al (2004) find about adopted children of biological mothers with schizophrenia?"	"Tienari et al (2004) found that adopted children of biological mothers with schizophrenia were more likely to develop the disorder themselves than adopted children of mothers without schizophrenia."
"How does the Dopamine Hypothesis explain the occurrence of schizophrenia?"	"The Dopamine Hypothesis suggests that higher than usual levels of dopamine in the subcortex (central areas of the brain) are associated with schizophrenia symptoms. This over-activity of dopamine may cause sensory hallucinations."
"What is the implication of the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins being less than 100%?"	"The fact that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is less than 100% suggests that factors other than genetics, such as environment, may also play a part in the development of the disorder."
"What did Ripke et al (2014) find in their study on schizophrenia?"	"Ripke et al (2014) found 108 genetic variations associated with schizophrenia."
"Define Hypodopaminergia."	"Hypodopaminergia refers to lower than usual levels of dopamine in the cortex (outer part of the brain), where less dopamine is being transmitted across synapses. This is linked with negative symptoms, as there is a reducing in normal functioning."
"How do dopamine agonists and antagonists support the dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia?"	"Dopamine agonists, which increase activity, produce schizophrenia-type symptoms in patients, supporting the hypodopaminergia aspect of the dopamine hypothesis. Antipsychotic drugs which lower dopamine levels (antagonists- reducing activity) reduced the occurrence of positive symptoms, supporting the hyperdopaminergia aspect of the hypothesis."
"Describe the role of the ventral striatum in schizophrenia."	"The ventral striatum is involved with reward anticipation. Schizophrenia patients have been found to have less activity in this region- the lower the activity, the more severe the negative symptoms. This could explain avolition (loss of motivation)."
"How are auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia patients correlated with brain activity?"	"Allen et al (2007) found that patients experiencing hallucinations had lower activation levels in the superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gyrus, and they made more errors, compared to a control group. Auditory hallucinations are therefore correlated with reduced activity in these areas."
"What is the criticism of neural explanations for schizophrenia?"	"Neural explanations have been criticised as reductionist, explaining schizophrenia at quite a simplistic level of explanation. The role of upbringing, learning and emotions is not considered, weakening this as a full explanation."
"Define Family Dysfunction in the context of schizophrenia."	"Family dysfunction refers to the workings of dysfunctional families, and the effects of being brought up in one, contributing to schizophrenia."
"Describe the concept of a 'schizophrenogenic mother' as proposed by Fromm-Reichmann."	"A 'schizophrenogenic mother' is a term coined by Fromm-Reichmann to describe a type of parent who is cold, uncaring, rejecting, unemotional, controlling, suspicious, and creates an atmosphere of tension and secrecy. This parenting style is believed to lead to an atmosphere of distrust and the development of paranoid thoughts which become delusions in the child."
"Define the 'double-bind theory' by Bateson et al."	"The 'double-bind theory' suggests that children who frequently receive contradictory messages from their parents are more likely to develop schizophrenia. This is because the conflicting messages prevent them from developing an internally coherent construction of reality, leading to a false concept of reality and an inability to communicate effectively."
"What is 'expressed emotion' in the context of family dynamics and schizophrenia?"	"'Expressed emotion' is a family communication style that involves criticism, hostility, and emotional over-involvement. High levels of expressed emotion may influence relapse rates, or the onset of schizophrenia in a vulnerable person. The negative emotional climate in these families can trigger a schizophrenic episode."
"What did Berry et al's 2008 study find about the relationship between childhood abuse and schizophrenia?"	"Berry et al's 2008 study found that a significant percentage of men and women with schizophrenia in their sample had a history of physical and/or sexual abuse in childhood. This supports the idea that family dysfunction is a risk factor in developing schizophrenia."
"Describe the role of dysfunctional thought processing in cognitive explanations for schizophrenia."	"Dysfunctional thought processing contributes to schizophrenia symptoms. This may be due to abnormal biological functioning. Two main kinds of dysfunctional thought processing are metarepresentation and central control. Metarepresentation dysfunction could lead to hallucinations and delusions, while central control dysfunction could explain disorganised speech and disordered thinking."
"Define 'metarepresentation' and its potential impact on individuals with schizophrenia."	"'Metarepresentation' is the ability to reflect on, and have insight into, our own intentions and the actions of others. Dysfunction in this area could mean that the individual is unable to recognise that their own thoughts are actually theirs, leading to hallucinations and delusions."
"Define 'central control' and its potential impact on individuals with schizophrenia."	"'Central control' is the ability to suppress automatic responses or triggers in response to stimuli. Dysfunction in this area could mean that the individual cannot suppress automatic thoughts that get triggered by other thoughts, leading to disorganised speech and disordered thinking."
"How does the Stroop test support the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia?"	"The Stroop test requires naming the color a word is written in, even though the word is a different color. Participants with schizophrenia took much longer to complete this test, supporting the idea that they have problems with central control, or the ability to suppress automatic thoughts."
"What is a potential weakness of cognitive explanations for schizophrenia?"	"A potential weakness of cognitive explanations for schizophrenia is that abnormal cognitions may be one of the effects or consequences of schizophrenia, rather than actually causing the development of it in the first place. This suggests that cognitive explanations are unlikely to be a complete explanation of the disorder."

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Describe the concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins according to Gottesman's study.

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The concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is 48% according to Gottesman's study.

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[{"id":1630020,"front":"Describe the concordance rates for schizophrenia in identical twins according to Gottesman's study.","back":"The concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is 48% according to Gottesman's study.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Concordance rates in identical twins for schizophrenia are significant in Gottesman's study, indicating a strong genetic influence. This finding suggests that genetic factors play a substantial role in the development of schizophrenia. Twin studies are valuable for understanding the heritability of complex traits like schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630021,"front":"Define the term 'polygenic' in the context of schizophrenia.","back":"'Polygenic' means that lots of different genes contribute to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Schizophrenia is a complex disorder influenced by multiple genes, each with a small effect. Polygenic inheritance suggests that the condition is not caused by a single gene but rather by the combined effects of many genetic variations across the genome.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630022,"front":"What does the term 'aetiologically heterogeneous' mean in relation to schizophrenia?","back":"'Aetiologically heterogeneous' means that different combinations of genes are implicated in the disorder of schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Schizophrenia is considered aetiologically heterogeneous due to the involvement of various genetic combinations in its development. This diversity in genetic factors contributes to the complexity and variability of the disorder's presentation and symptoms across individuals.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630023,"front":"What did Tienari et al (2004) find about adopted children of biological mothers with schizophrenia?","back":"Tienari et al (2004) found that adopted children of biological mothers with schizophrenia were more likely to develop the disorder themselves than adopted children of mothers without schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The study by Tienari et al (2004) highlighted a significant link between biological maternal schizophrenia and an increased risk of the disorder in adopted children. This finding underscores the role of genetic factors in the development of schizophrenia, emphasizing the interplay between nature and nurture in mental health outcomes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630034,"front":"How does the Dopamine Hypothesis explain the occurrence of schizophrenia?","back":"The Dopamine Hypothesis suggests that higher than usual levels of dopamine in the subcortex (central areas of the brain) are associated with schizophrenia symptoms. This over-activity of dopamine may cause sensory hallucinations.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Dopamine Hypothesis posits that elevated dopamine levels in the subcortex contribute to schizophrenia symptoms, such as sensory hallucinations. This theory is supported by the effectiveness of antipsychotic medications that target dopamine receptors. Additionally, neuroimaging studies have shown increased dopamine activity in individuals with schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630035,"front":"What is the implication of the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins being less than 100%?","back":"The fact that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is less than 100% suggests that factors other than genetics, such as environment, may also play a part in the development of the disorder.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins being less than 100% implies that genetics alone may not be the sole determinant of the disorder. This indicates the potential influence of environmental factors in the development of schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630036,"front":"What did Ripke et al (2014) find in their study on schizophrenia?","back":"Ripke et al (2014) found 108 genetic variations associated with schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Ripke et al (2014) identified 108 genetic variations linked to schizophrenia, shedding light on the complex genetic underpinnings of the disorder. This study significantly contributed to understanding the genetic factors influencing susceptibility to schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630039,"front":"Define Hypodopaminergia.","back":"Hypodopaminergia refers to lower than usual levels of dopamine in the cortex (outer part of the brain), where less dopamine is being transmitted across synapses. This is linked with negative symptoms, as there is a reducing in normal functioning.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Hypodopaminergia is characterized by decreased dopamine levels in the cortex, leading to reduced transmission across synapses. This can result in negative symptoms due to impaired normal functioning. Dopamine plays a crucial role in various brain functions, including motivation, reward, and movement control.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630047,"front":"How do dopamine agonists and antagonists support the dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia?","back":"Dopamine agonists, which increase activity, produce schizophrenia-type symptoms in patients, supporting the hypodopaminergia aspect of the dopamine hypothesis. Antipsychotic drugs which lower dopamine levels (antagonists- reducing activity) reduced the occurrence of positive symptoms, supporting the hyperdopaminergia aspect of the hypothesis.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Dopamine agonists mimic high dopamine levels seen in schizophrenia, inducing symptoms. Antagonists reduce dopamine activity, alleviating symptoms. This dual effect aligns with the dopamine hypothesis, which posits both low and high dopamine levels contribute to schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630049,"front":"Describe the role of the ventral striatum in schizophrenia.","back":"The ventral striatum is involved with reward anticipation. Schizophrenia patients have been found to have less activity in this region- the lower the activity, the more severe the negative symptoms. This could explain avolition (loss of motivation).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The ventral striatum is linked to reward processing. In schizophrenia, reduced activity in this area correlates with more severe negative symptoms like avolition. This suggests a connection between impaired reward anticipation and loss of motivation in schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630060,"front":"How are auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia patients correlated with brain activity?","back":"Allen et al (2007) found that patients experiencing hallucinations had lower activation levels in the superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gyrus, and they made more errors, compared to a control group. Auditory hallucinations are therefore correlated with reduced activity in these areas.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia patients are linked to decreased brain activity in the superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gyrus. This reduced activation may contribute to the experience of hallucinations and associated cognitive errors compared to individuals without schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630061,"front":"What is the criticism of neural explanations for schizophrenia?","back":"Neural explanations have been criticised as reductionist, explaining schizophrenia at quite a simplistic level of explanation. The role of upbringing, learning and emotions is not considered, weakening this as a full explanation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Critics argue that neural explanations oversimplify the complex nature of schizophrenia by focusing solely on biological factors. They suggest that factors like environment, upbringing, and psychological experiences are crucial in understanding the disorder fully. This criticism highlights the need for a more comprehensive approach to explaining schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630062,"front":"Define Family Dysfunction in the context of schizophrenia.","back":"Family dysfunction refers to the workings of dysfunctional families, and the effects of being brought up in one, contributing to schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Family dysfunction in the context of schizophrenia refers to the impact of dysfunctional family dynamics on the development and exacerbation of schizophrenia. It encompasses how family interactions, communication patterns, and relationships may contribute to the onset or progression of the disorder.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630063,"front":"Describe the concept of a 'schizophrenogenic mother' as proposed by Fromm-Reichmann.","back":"A 'schizophrenogenic mother' is a term coined by Fromm-Reichmann to describe a type of parent who is cold, uncaring, rejecting, unemotional, controlling, suspicious, and creates an atmosphere of tension and secrecy. This parenting style is believed to lead to an atmosphere of distrust and the development of paranoid thoughts which become delusions in the child.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Fromm-Reichmann's concept of a 'schizophrenogenic mother' highlights the impact of a specific parenting style on a child's psychological development. The term underscores the role of environmental factors, particularly parental behavior, in contributing to the manifestation of schizophrenia symptoms in vulnerable individuals. This concept emphasizes the importance of early relationships and experiences in shaping an individual's mental health outcomes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630067,"front":"Define the 'double-bind theory' by Bateson et al.","back":"The 'double-bind theory' suggests that children who frequently receive contradictory messages from their parents are more likely to develop schizophrenia. This is because the conflicting messages prevent them from developing an internally coherent construction of reality, leading to a false concept of reality and an inability to communicate effectively.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The 'double-bind theory' posits that consistent exposure to conflicting messages, particularly in childhood, can disrupt one's ability to form a coherent understanding of reality. This can result in challenges with communication and potentially contribute to the development of schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630074,"front":"What is 'expressed emotion' in the context of family dynamics and schizophrenia?","back":"'Expressed emotion' is a family communication style that involves criticism, hostility, and emotional over-involvement. High levels of expressed emotion may influence relapse rates, or the onset of schizophrenia in a vulnerable person. The negative emotional climate in these families can trigger a schizophrenic episode.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"High levels of expressed emotion can create a stressful environment for individuals with schizophrenia, potentially exacerbating symptoms. This communication style is linked to higher relapse rates and poorer outcomes for those with the condition. Managing family dynamics is crucial in supporting individuals with schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630081,"front":"What did Berry et al's 2008 study find about the relationship between childhood abuse and schizophrenia?","back":"Berry et al's 2008 study found that a significant percentage of men and women with schizophrenia in their sample had a history of physical and/or sexual abuse in childhood. This supports the idea that family dysfunction is a risk factor in developing schizophrenia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The study by Berry et al. in 2008 revealed a noteworthy correlation between childhood abuse and schizophrenia. It indicated a substantial proportion of individuals with schizophrenia had experienced physical and/or sexual abuse during childhood. This suggests a potential link between family dysfunction and the development of schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630082,"front":"Describe the role of dysfunctional thought processing in cognitive explanations for schizophrenia.","back":"Dysfunctional thought processing contributes to schizophrenia symptoms. This may be due to abnormal biological functioning. Two main kinds of dysfunctional thought processing are metarepresentation and central control. Metarepresentation dysfunction could lead to hallucinations and delusions, while central control dysfunction could explain disorganised speech and disordered thinking.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Dysfunctional thought processing plays a crucial role in cognitive explanations for schizophrenia. It is linked to abnormal biological functioning and manifests in metarepresentation and central control dysfunction. These contribute to symptoms like hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and disordered thinking.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630098,"front":"Define 'metarepresentation' and its potential impact on individuals with schizophrenia.","back":"'Metarepresentation' is the ability to reflect on, and have insight into, our own intentions and the actions of others. Dysfunction in this area could mean that the individual is unable to recognise that their own thoughts are actually theirs, leading to hallucinations and delusions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630099,"front":"Define 'central control' and its potential impact on individuals with schizophrenia.","back":"'Central control' is the ability to suppress automatic responses or triggers in response to stimuli. Dysfunction in this area could mean that the individual cannot suppress automatic thoughts that get triggered by other thoughts, leading to disorganised speech and disordered thinking.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Dysfunction in central control for individuals with schizophrenia can lead to difficulties in suppressing automatic thoughts triggered by other thoughts. This can result in disorganized speech and disordered thinking, impacting their ability to process and respond to stimuli effectively.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630100,"front":"How does the Stroop test support the cognitive explanation of schizophrenia?","back":"The Stroop test requires naming the color a word is written in, even though the word is a different color. Participants with schizophrenia took much longer to complete this test, supporting the idea that they have problems with central control, or the ability to suppress automatic thoughts.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Stroop test highlights cognitive control deficits, which are often observed in individuals with schizophrenia. These deficits suggest challenges in managing conflicting information, reflecting broader issues in attention and processing. This aligns with theories that emphasize cognitive dysfunction as a core feature of the disorder.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630103,"front":"What is a potential weakness of cognitive explanations for schizophrenia?","back":"A potential weakness of cognitive explanations for schizophrenia is that abnormal cognitions may be one of the effects or consequences of schizophrenia, rather than actually causing the development of it in the first place. This suggests that cognitive explanations are unlikely to be a complete explanation of the disorder.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Cognitive explanations for schizophrenia may overlook the possibility that abnormal cognitions are a result of the disorder, rather than its cause. This raises questions about the comprehensive nature of cognitive explanations in fully understanding the development of schizophrenia.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"nGsLR","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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