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Bonding

A-Level AQA Chemistry

This pack of flashcards covers the fundamental principles of chemical bonding, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. It explores the formation and properties of positive and negative ions, the factors affecting melting points, bond types and shapes, electronegativity, intermolecular forces, and the characteristics of different crystal structures. Each card provides a succinct explanation or definition on one side, with detailed information on the reverse to aid in understanding chemical structures and interactions.

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"What is the main factor affecting the size of Van der Waals forces?"	"The number of electrons in the molecule. The more electrons, the stronger the Van der Waals forces and the higher the boiling point."
"What is the shape of a molecule with linear geometry?"	"A molecule with linear geometry has a bond angle of 180 degrees."
"Define octahedral geometry."	"Octahedral geometry refers to a molecular shape with six bond pairs and no lone pairs, resulting in bond angles of approximately 90 degrees."
"How can you determine the shape of a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal geometry?"	"A molecule with trigonal bipyramidal geometry has bond angles of approximately 119 degrees and 89 degrees."
"Describe the shape of a molecule with a lone pair that reduces the bond angle."	"The presence of a lone pair in a molecule can reduce the bond angle, resulting in a shape that deviates from the expected angle."
"What is electronegativity?"	"Electronegativity is the relative tendency of an atom in a covalent bond to attract electrons in a covalent bond to itself."
"Describe the factors affecting electronegativity."	"Electronegativity increases across a period as the number of protons increases and the atomic radius decreases. It decreases down a group because the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons increases and the shielding of inner shell electrons increases."
"What is intermediate bonding?"	"Ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of a continuum of bonding type. Differences in electronegativity between elements can determine where a compound lies on this scale."
"How is a polar covalent bond formed?"	"A polar covalent bond forms when the elements in the bond have different electronegativities (around 0.3 to 1.7)."
"What determines if a molecule is polar or non-polar?"	"A symmetric molecule with all identical bonds and no lone pairs will not be polar. If the individual dipoles on the bonds cancel out due to the symmetrical shape of the molecule, it is non-polar."
"Describe Van der Waals' forces."	"Van der Waals' forces occur between all molecular substances and noble gases. They are transient, induced dipole-dipole interactions that form due to fluctuating electron density in molecules."
"Describe the shape of a molecule with square planar geometry."	"The molecule has a square planar shape with bond angles of approximately 90 degrees."
"Define permanent dipole-dipole forces."	"Permanent dipole-dipole forces occur between polar molecules. They are stronger than Van der Waals forces and result from a significant difference in electronegativity between atoms."
"How do the boiling points of halogens change down the group?"	"The boiling points increase down the group due to the increasing number of electrons in the bigger molecules, resulting in larger Van der Waals forces."
"Describe hydrogen bonding."	"Hydrogen bonding occurs in compounds with a hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. These compounds must also have an available lone pair of electrons."
"What causes the anomalously high boiling points of H2O, NH3, and HF?"	"The hydrogen bonding between the molecules causes the high boiling points."
"Explain the general increase in boiling point from H2S to H2Te."	"The increase in boiling point is caused by increasing Van der Waals forces between molecules due to an increasing number of electrons."
"What are the four types of crystal structure?"	"The four types of crystal structure are ionic, metallic, molecular, and giant covalent (macromolecular)."
"Describe the structure of an ionic crystal."	"An ionic crystal has a giant ionic lattice showing alternate Na+ and Cl- ions."
"Describe the structure of a metallic crystal."	"A metallic crystal has a giant metallic lattice showing close packing magnesium ions."
"Describe the structure of a molecular crystal."	"A molecular crystal, like ice, has regular arrangement of water molecules held together by weak van der Waals forces."
"Describe the structure of a macromolecular crystal."	"A macromolecular crystal, like diamond or graphite, has a giant structure with strong covalent forces and delocalized electrons."
"Define metallic bonding."	"Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons."
"What happens to metal atoms during ionic bonding?"	"Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions."
"What happens to non-metal atoms during ionic bonding?"	"Non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negative ions."
"Compare the melting points of MgO and NaCl and explain why they differ."	"MgO has a higher melting point than NaCl because the ions involved (Mg2+ and O2-) are smaller and have higher charges than those in NaCl (Na+ and Cl-)."
"Explain why positive ions are smaller compared to their atoms."	"Positive ions are smaller because they have one less shell of electrons and the ratio of protons to electrons has increased, resulting in a greater net force on the remaining electrons."
"Why are negative ions formed from groups five to seven larger than the corresponding atoms?"	"Negative ions have more electrons than the corresponding atoms, but the same number of protons. The pull of the nucleus is shared over more electrons, resulting in a weaker attraction per electron and making the ion bigger."
"What is the relationship between the number of protons and the size of ions?"	"As the number of protons increases, the effective nuclear attraction per electron increases, causing ions to get smaller."
"How does the size of ionic radii change within a group?"	"Within a group, the size of ionic radii increases going down the group because the ions have more shells of electrons."
"Describe a covalent bond."	"A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons between two atoms."
"What is dative covalent bonding?"	"Dative covalent bonding occurs when the shared pair of electrons in a covalent bond come from only one of the bonding atoms."
"How does a dative covalent bond differ from an ordinary covalent bond?"	"A dative covalent bond is formed when the shared pair of electrons come from only one of the bonding atoms, while an ordinary covalent bond is formed when the shared pair of electrons come from both bonding atoms."
"Describe ionic bonding."	"Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by electron transfer."
"What are the three main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding?"	"The three main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding are the number of protons/strength of nuclear attraction, the number of delocalized electrons per atom, and the size of the ion."
"Describe the structure of a simple molecular substance."	"A simple molecular substance consists of molecules held together by intermolecular forces such as van der Waals forces, permanent dipoles, or hydrogen bonds."
"What is the property of metallic substances that allows them to conduct electricity?"	"Metallic substances have a high conductivity because of the presence of delocalized electrons that can move through the structure."
"What is the bond angle in a linear molecule?"	"The bond angle in a linear molecule is 180 degrees."
"Define trigonal planar."	"Trigonal planar is a molecular shape with three bonding pairs and no lone pairs around the central atom."
"How do lone pairs of electrons affect the shape of a molecule?"	"Lone pairs of electrons repel more than bonding pairs, causing a reduction in bond angles."
"Describe the shape and bond angle of a tetrahedral molecule."	"A tetrahedral molecule has four bonding pairs and no lone pairs, with a bond angle of 109.5 degrees."

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Front

What is the main factor affecting the size of Van der Waals forces?

Back

The number of electrons in the molecule. The more electrons, the stronger the Van der Waals forces and the higher the boiling point.

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[{"id":974671,"front":"What is the main factor affecting the size of Van der Waals forces?","back":"The number of electrons in the molecule. The more electrons, the stronger the Van der Waals forces and the higher the boiling point.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The main factor affecting the size of Van der Waals forces is the number of electrons in the molecule. This is because Van der Waals forces arise from temporary fluctuations in electron distribution, and molecules with more electrons have a greater chance of experiencing these fluctuations. As a result, molecules with more electrons have stronger Van der Waals forces, leading to higher boiling points.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974661,"front":"What is the shape of a molecule with linear geometry?","back":"A molecule with linear geometry has a bond angle of 180 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":1,"explanation":"A molecule with linear geometry has a bond angle of 180 degrees. This means that the atoms in the molecule are arranged in a straight line, with no deviation from this line. The linear shape is typically observed in molecules with only two atoms or in molecules with three atoms where the central atom is bonded to two other atoms and there are no lone pairs of electrons. The linear geometry is a result of the repulsion between the bonding electron pairs, which pushes the atoms as far apart as possible, resulting in a straight line configuration.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974662,"front":"Define octahedral geometry.","back":"Octahedral geometry refers to a molecular shape with six bond pairs and no lone pairs, resulting in bond angles of approximately 90 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":2,"explanation":"Octahedral geometry is a molecular shape that occurs when a molecule has six bond pairs and no lone pairs. This arrangement results in bond angles of approximately 90 degrees. The term \"octahedral\" comes from the shape's resemblance to a regular octahedron, which has eight faces. In this geometry, the central atom is surrounded by six atoms or groups, evenly spaced around it. This arrangement provides maximum symmetry and minimizes repulsion between electron pairs, making it a stable molecular shape.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974663,"front":"How can you determine the shape of a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal geometry?","back":"A molecule with trigonal bipyramidal geometry has bond angles of approximately 119 degrees and 89 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":3,"explanation":"Trigonal bipyramidal geometry is determined by the arrangement of electron pairs around the central atom. It consists of three equatorial atoms in a plane, with bond angles of approximately 120 degrees, and two axial atoms above and below the plane, with bond angles of approximately 90 degrees. This arrangement maximizes the distance between electron pairs, minimizing repulsion and achieving a stable molecular shape.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974664,"front":"Describe the shape of a molecule with a lone pair that reduces the bond angle.","back":"The presence of a lone pair in a molecule can reduce the bond angle, resulting in a shape that deviates from the expected angle.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":4,"explanation":"The presence of a lone pair in a molecule can affect the electron distribution and repulsion between electron pairs. This can lead to a reduction in the bond angle, as the lone pair occupies more space and pushes the bonding pairs closer together. This deviation from the expected angle results in a different shape for the molecule.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974665,"front":"What is electronegativity?","back":"Electronegativity is the relative tendency of an atom in a covalent bond to attract electrons in a covalent bond to itself.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":5,"explanation":"Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons towards itself in a covalent bond. It is a relative property that helps determine the polarity of a bond. Electronegativity values are assigned to each element, allowing for comparisons between different atoms. The higher the electronegativity value, the stronger the atom's pull on the shared electrons. This property is crucial in understanding chemical bonding and predicting the behavior of molecules.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974666,"front":"Describe the factors affecting electronegativity.","back":"Electronegativity increases across a period as the number of protons increases and the atomic radius decreases. It decreases down a group because the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons increases and the shielding of inner shell electrons increases.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":6,"explanation":"Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond. It is influenced by two main factors: atomic radius and effective nuclear charge. As the atomic radius decreases across a period, the positive charge of the nucleus has a stronger pull on the electrons, increasing electronegativity. Down a group, the atomic radius increases, resulting in a weaker attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons, leading to a decrease in electronegativity. Additionally, the shielding effect of inner shell electrons increases down a group, further reducing the effective nuclear charge and electronegativity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974667,"front":"What is intermediate bonding?","back":"Ionic and covalent bonding are the extremes of a continuum of bonding type. Differences in electronegativity between elements can determine where a compound lies on this scale.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":7,"explanation":"Intermediate bonding refers to the bonding that falls between the extremes of ionic and covalent bonding. It is determined by the differences in electronegativity between elements in a compound. Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons. When the electronegativity difference is large, ionic bonding occurs, where electrons are transferred from one atom to another. When the electronegativity difference is small, covalent bonding occurs, where electrons are shared between atoms. Intermediate bonding occurs when the electronegativity difference is moderate, resulting in a partial transfer or sharing of electrons.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974668,"front":"How is a polar covalent bond formed?","back":"A polar covalent bond forms when the elements in the bond have different electronegativities (around 0.3 to 1.7).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":8,"explanation":"A polar covalent bond is formed due to the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms with different electronegativities. Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons. When the electronegativity difference is between 0.3 and 1.7, the bond is considered polar covalent. This unequal sharing results in a partial positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the other, creating a dipole.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974669,"front":"What determines if a molecule is polar or non-polar?","back":"A symmetric molecule with all identical bonds and no lone pairs will not be polar. If the individual dipoles on the bonds cancel out due to the symmetrical shape of the molecule, it is non-polar.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":9,"explanation":"The polarity of a molecule is determined by the distribution of its electron density. In a symmetric molecule with identical bonds and no lone pairs, the individual bond dipoles cancel out due to the molecule's symmetrical shape. This results in a non-polar molecule. However, if the molecule has an asymmetrical shape or contains polar bonds that do not cancel out, it will be polar. The presence of lone pairs on the central atom can also contribute to the polarity of the molecule.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974670,"front":"Describe Van der Waals' forces.","back":"Van der Waals' forces occur between all molecular substances and noble gases. They are transient, induced dipole-dipole interactions that form due to fluctuating electron density in molecules.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":10,"explanation":"Van der Waals' forces are a type of intermolecular force that exists between all molecular substances and noble gases. These forces are transient and arise from the temporary fluctuations in electron density within molecules. They are known as induced dipole-dipole interactions because they involve the temporary formation of dipoles in molecules. These forces play a crucial role in determining the physical properties of substances, such as boiling and melting points.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974660,"front":"Describe the shape of a molecule with square planar geometry.","back":"The molecule has a square planar shape with bond angles of approximately 90 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":11,"explanation":"A molecule with square planar geometry has a flat, two-dimensional shape. It consists of a central atom surrounded by four bonded atoms or groups, arranged in a square formation. The bond angles between the central atom and the surrounding atoms are approximately 90 degrees. This arrangement allows for maximum electron repulsion and stability.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974672,"front":"Define permanent dipole-dipole forces.","back":"Permanent dipole-dipole forces occur between polar molecules. They are stronger than Van der Waals forces and result from a significant difference in electronegativity between atoms.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":12,"explanation":"Permanent dipole-dipole forces arise due to the presence of polar molecules. These forces are stronger than Van der Waals forces and are a result of a significant difference in electronegativity between atoms within the molecule. The unequal sharing of electrons creates a permanent dipole, leading to attractive forces between the positive end of one molecule and the negative end of another. This interaction contributes to the overall stability and physical properties of substances.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974673,"front":"How do the boiling points of halogens change down the group?","back":"The boiling points increase down the group due to the increasing number of electrons in the bigger molecules, resulting in larger Van der Waals forces.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":13,"explanation":"The boiling points of halogens increase down the group. This is because as you move down the group, the size of the halogen atoms increases, leading to larger molecules. With larger molecules, there are more electrons, resulting in stronger Van der Waals forces between the molecules. These stronger intermolecular forces require more energy to break, hence the higher boiling points.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974674,"front":"Describe hydrogen bonding.","back":"Hydrogen bonding occurs in compounds with a hydrogen atom attached to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. These compounds must also have an available lone pair of electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":14,"explanation":"Hydrogen bonding arises from the attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F) and another electronegative atom with a lone pair of electrons. This creates a strong dipole-dipole interaction, crucial in various biological and chemical processes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974675,"front":"What causes the anomalously high boiling points of H2O, NH3, and HF?","back":"The hydrogen bonding between the molecules causes the high boiling points.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":15,"explanation":"Hydrogen bonding is a type of intermolecular force that occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine). This creates a strong dipole-dipole attraction between neighboring molecules. In the case of H2O, NH3, and HF, the hydrogen bonding between the molecules is particularly strong, leading to higher boiling points. This is because the hydrogen bonds require more energy to break, resulting in a higher temperature needed for the substances to transition from a liquid to a gas phase.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974676,"front":"Explain the general increase in boiling point from H2S to H2Te.","back":"The increase in boiling point is caused by increasing Van der Waals forces between molecules due to an increasing number of electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":16,"explanation":"As we move from H2S to H2Te, the boiling point increases. This is because the number of electrons in the molecules increases, leading to stronger Van der Waals forces between the molecules. These forces are responsible for holding the molecules together, and as they become stronger, more energy is required to break them, resulting in a higher boiling point.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974677,"front":"What are the four types of crystal structure?","back":"The four types of crystal structure are ionic, metallic, molecular, and giant covalent (macromolecular).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":17,"explanation":"The four types of crystal structure are determined by the arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystal lattice. Ionic crystals consist of positively and negatively charged ions held together by electrostatic forces. Metallic crystals are composed of metal atoms arranged in a regular pattern, with delocalized electrons. Molecular crystals are formed by discrete molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces. Giant covalent crystals have a network of covalent bonds extending throughout the crystal lattice, resulting in a strong and rigid structure.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974678,"front":"Describe the structure of an ionic crystal.","back":"An ionic crystal has a giant ionic lattice showing alternate Na+ and Cl- ions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":18,"explanation":"An ionic crystal is composed of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) arranged in a repeating pattern called a lattice. The cations and anions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. This lattice structure gives the crystal its stability and rigidity. In the case of NaCl, the sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) are arranged in an alternating pattern, with each Na+ ion surrounded by six Cl- ions and vice versa. This arrangement maximizes the attraction between opposite charges while minimizing repulsion between like charges.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974679,"front":"Describe the structure of a metallic crystal.","back":"A metallic crystal has a giant metallic lattice showing close packing magnesium ions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":19,"explanation":"A metallic crystal is composed of a regular arrangement of metal atoms in a lattice structure. The lattice consists of closely packed metal ions, which are positively charged. This arrangement allows for the delocalization of electrons, creating a sea of mobile electrons that can move freely throughout the crystal. This delocalization of electrons gives metals their characteristic properties, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974680,"front":"Describe the structure of a molecular crystal.","back":"A molecular crystal, like ice, has regular arrangement of water molecules held together by weak van der Waals forces.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":20,"explanation":"A molecular crystal is composed of molecules arranged in a regular pattern. These crystals are held together by weak intermolecular forces, such as van der Waals forces. This arrangement gives the crystal its characteristic structure and stability. An example of a molecular crystal is ice, where water molecules form a lattice structure due to hydrogen bonding.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974681,"front":"Describe the structure of a macromolecular crystal.","back":"A macromolecular crystal, like diamond or graphite, has a giant structure with strong covalent forces and delocalized electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":21,"explanation":"A macromolecular crystal has a giant structure with strong covalent forces and delocalized electrons. This means that the atoms in the crystal are held together by strong chemical bonds, resulting in a rigid and stable structure. The presence of delocalized electrons allows for the conduction of electricity in some macromolecular crystals. This unique structure gives macromolecular crystals their characteristic properties and makes them useful in various applications.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974649,"front":"Define metallic bonding.","back":"Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":22,"explanation":"Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where the outer electrons of metal atoms are delocalized and form a \"sea\" of electrons. This allows the positive metal ions to be surrounded by a cloud of electrons, creating a strong electrostatic attraction. This bonding is responsible for the unique properties of metals, such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, and ductility.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974639,"front":"What happens to metal atoms during ionic bonding?","back":"Metal atoms lose electrons to form positive ions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":23,"explanation":"During ionic bonding, metal atoms undergo a process called ionization. They lose electrons from their outermost energy level, resulting in the formation of positively charged ions. This occurs because metals have a tendency to have low ionization energies, making it easier for them to lose electrons and achieve a stable electron configuration. The loss of electrons allows the metal atoms to achieve a more stable state by attaining a full outer energy level, similar to the electron configuration of a noble gas.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974640,"front":"What happens to non-metal atoms during ionic bonding?","back":"Non-metal atoms gain electrons to form negative ions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":24,"explanation":"During ionic bonding, non-metal atoms undergo a process called electron gain. This means that they acquire electrons from other atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration. This results in the formation of negative ions, as the non-metal atoms now have more electrons than protons, giving them a net negative charge. This electron transfer allows for the establishment of electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative ions, leading to the formation of an ionic bond.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974641,"front":"Compare the melting points of MgO and NaCl and explain why they differ.","back":"MgO has a higher melting point than NaCl because the ions involved (Mg2+ and O2-) are smaller and have higher charges than those in NaCl (Na+ and Cl-).","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":25,"explanation":"The melting points of MgO and NaCl differ because of the differences in the size and charge of the ions involved. MgO has a higher melting point because the Mg2+ and O2- ions are smaller and have higher charges compared to the Na+ and Cl- ions in NaCl. The smaller size and higher charge of the ions in MgO result in stronger electrostatic attractions between them, requiring more energy to break these bonds and melt the compound.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974642,"front":"Explain why positive ions are smaller compared to their atoms.","back":"Positive ions are smaller because they have one less shell of electrons and the ratio of protons to electrons has increased, resulting in a greater net force on the remaining electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":26,"explanation":"Positive ions are smaller because they have lost one or more electrons, reducing the electron cloud around the nucleus. This reduction in electron cloud size leads to a decrease in the atomic radius. Additionally, the loss of electrons increases the ratio of protons to electrons, resulting in a stronger attraction between the remaining electrons and the nucleus. This increased attraction further pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus, making the positive ion even smaller in size.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974643,"front":"Why are negative ions formed from groups five to seven larger than the corresponding atoms?","back":"Negative ions have more electrons than the corresponding atoms, but the same number of protons. The pull of the nucleus is shared over more electrons, resulting in a weaker attraction per electron and making the ion bigger.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":27,"explanation":"Negative ions are formed when atoms gain electrons, resulting in an increased electron-to-proton ratio. This increased electron cloud causes a weaker attraction between the electrons and the nucleus, leading to a larger size. The additional electrons spread out the positive charge of the nucleus, reducing the effective nuclear charge experienced by each electron. As a result, the electrons are less strongly attracted to the nucleus, causing the ion to be larger than the corresponding atom.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974644,"front":"What is the relationship between the number of protons and the size of ions?","back":"As the number of protons increases, the effective nuclear attraction per electron increases, causing ions to get smaller.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":28,"explanation":"The number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number and also affects the size of ions. This is because as the number of protons increases, the positive charge in the nucleus becomes stronger, resulting in a greater attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. This increased attraction causes the electrons to be pulled closer to the nucleus, making the ion smaller in size.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974645,"front":"How does the size of ionic radii change within a group?","back":"Within a group, the size of ionic radii increases going down the group because the ions have more shells of electrons.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":29,"explanation":"The size of ionic radii increases within a group because as you move down the group, the number of electron shells increases. This means that the outermost electrons are further away from the nucleus, resulting in larger ionic radii. The increase in size is due to the addition of new energy levels, which leads to a larger atomic radius and subsequently a larger ionic radius.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974646,"front":"Describe a covalent bond.","back":"A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons between two atoms.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":30,"explanation":"A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons. This sharing allows both atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration. Covalent bonds are typically formed between nonmetal atoms and can be polar or nonpolar depending on the electronegativity difference between the atoms. This type of bond is strong and is responsible for holding molecules together.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974647,"front":"What is dative covalent bonding?","back":"Dative covalent bonding occurs when the shared pair of electrons in a covalent bond come from only one of the bonding atoms.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":31,"explanation":"Dative covalent bonding is a type of covalent bonding where the shared pair of electrons in a bond are donated by one atom to another. This results in one atom providing both electrons for the bond, while the other atom does not contribute any electrons. This type of bonding is also known as coordinate covalent bonding. It is important to note that dative covalent bonds are different from regular covalent bonds, where both atoms contribute electrons.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974648,"front":"How does a dative covalent bond differ from an ordinary covalent bond?","back":"A dative covalent bond is formed when the shared pair of electrons come from only one of the bonding atoms, while an ordinary covalent bond is formed when the shared pair of electrons come from both bonding atoms.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":32,"explanation":"A dative covalent bond is unique because the shared pair of electrons is contributed by only one of the bonding atoms, whereas in an ordinary covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons comes from both bonding atoms. This distinction highlights the asymmetry in electron sharing between the two types of bonds.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974638,"front":"Describe ionic bonding.","back":"Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by electron transfer.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":33,"explanation":"Ionic bonding occurs when there is a transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions. This electrostatic force of attraction between the positive and negative ions leads to the formation of a stable ionic compound. The transfer of electrons occurs because one atom has a lower ionization energy and tends to lose electrons, while the other atom has a higher electron affinity and tends to gain electrons. This transfer of electrons creates a strong bond between the ions, resulting in the formation of a crystal lattice structure.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974650,"front":"What are the three main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding?","back":"The three main factors that affect the strength of metallic bonding are the number of protons/strength of nuclear attraction, the number of delocalized electrons per atom, and the size of the ion.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":34,"explanation":"The strength of metallic bonding is influenced by several factors. Firstly, the number of protons and the strength of nuclear attraction play a crucial role. More protons result in stronger attraction between the positive nucleus and the delocalized electrons. Secondly, the number of delocalized electrons per atom is important. More delocalized electrons contribute to stronger metallic bonding. Lastly, the size of the ion also affects the strength of metallic bonding. Smaller ions have stronger metallic bonding due to closer proximity of the delocalized electrons to the positive nucleus.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974653,"front":"Describe the structure of a simple molecular substance.","back":"A simple molecular substance consists of molecules held together by intermolecular forces such as van der Waals forces, permanent dipoles, or hydrogen bonds.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":35,"explanation":"A simple molecular substance is composed of individual molecules that are bonded together by intermolecular forces. These forces can include van der Waals forces, permanent dipoles, or hydrogen bonds. These bonds are relatively weak compared to the intramolecular bonds within the molecules themselves. This structure allows for low melting and boiling points, as the intermolecular forces can be easily overcome.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974654,"front":"What is the property of metallic substances that allows them to conduct electricity?","back":"Metallic substances have a high conductivity because of the presence of delocalized electrons that can move through the structure.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":36,"explanation":"Metallic substances have a unique property called delocalized electrons. These electrons are not bound to any specific atom and are free to move throughout the structure of the metal. This mobility allows them to easily carry electric charge, making metallic substances excellent conductors of electricity. The presence of delocalized electrons is a result of the metallic bonding, where metal atoms share their outer electrons with neighboring atoms, creating a sea of electrons that can move freely. This property is what distinguishes metals from other types of substances and enables them to conduct electricity efficiently.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974656,"front":"What is the bond angle in a linear molecule?","back":"The bond angle in a linear molecule is 180 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":37,"explanation":"In a linear molecule, the bond angle is 180 degrees due to the arrangement of atoms along a straight line. This geometry results in equal and opposite forces, causing the atoms to align in a straight line with a bond angle of 180 degrees.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974657,"front":"Define trigonal planar.","back":"Trigonal planar is a molecular shape with three bonding pairs and no lone pairs around the central atom.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":38,"explanation":"Trigonal planar is a molecular shape that occurs when a central atom is bonded to three other atoms and has no lone pairs. This arrangement results in a flat, triangular shape with a bond angle of 120 degrees. This shape is commonly found in molecules with a central atom surrounded by three identical atoms, such as boron trifluoride (BF3) or formaldehyde (CH2O). The symmetry of the trigonal planar shape allows for efficient packing in crystals and influences the reactivity and physical properties of molecules.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974658,"front":"How do lone pairs of electrons affect the shape of a molecule?","back":"Lone pairs of electrons repel more than bonding pairs, causing a reduction in bond angles.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":39,"explanation":"Lone pairs of electrons in a molecule create regions of high electron density. This electron density repels other electron pairs, including bonding pairs. As a result, the presence of lone pairs causes a distortion in the molecule's shape, leading to a reduction in bond angles. This phenomenon is known as electron pair repulsion theory.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":974659,"front":"Describe the shape and bond angle of a tetrahedral molecule.","back":"A tetrahedral molecule has four bonding pairs and no lone pairs, with a bond angle of 109.5 degrees.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":40,"explanation":"The tetrahedral shape arises from the arrangement of four electron pairs around the central atom, creating a symmetrical structure. The bond angle of 109.5 degrees is a result of the optimal spatial arrangement for electron pairs to minimize repulsion, leading to a tetrahedral geometry.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"mvIBb","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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