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Describe the concept of 'Objectivity and the empirical method' in science.

Objectivity in science refers to the idea that researchers should not let their personal biases affect the results of studies. The empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories. The most objective research method is often the laboratory experiment, where variables are closely controlled.

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"Describe the concept of 'Objectivity and the empirical method' in science."	"Objectivity in science refers to the idea that researchers should not let their personal biases affect the results of studies. The empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories. The most objective research method is often the laboratory experiment, where variables are closely controlled."
"Define 'Replicability' in the context of scientific studies."	"Replicability refers to the ability to repeat scientific studies to check the reliability of the findings. If similar results are seen each time the study is repeated, the results are considered generalizable and the validity of the study is strengthened."
"What does 'Falsifiability' mean in scientific theory, as proposed by Karl Popper?"	"Falsifiability, as proposed by Karl Popper, means that for a theory to be truly scientific, it must be possible to prove it wrong. Theories which survive repeated attempts to prove them wrong can be accepted as being very likely to be true."
"Explain the process of 'Theory construction and hypothesis testing' in science."	"Theory construction involves creating a set of general laws or rules to explain events or behaviours. A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on the theory. Once a study is conducted, the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected, leading to acceptance or modification of the theory. This process is known as deduction."
"What are 'Paradigms and paradigm shifts' in the context of science?"	"A paradigm is a set of assumptions or a generally accepted way of thinking within a discipline. A paradigm shift occurs when the dominant paradigm is replaced by a new one. In psychology, there are multiple competing paradigms, each offering a different explanation of human behaviour."
"Describe the concept of a paradigm shift according to Kuhn."	"A paradigm shift, according to Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. This happens once enough evidence emerges to challenge the current paradigm. An example is when Einstein’s theory of relativity changed the accepted assumptions within physics."
"Do psychology theories have a paradigm?"	"Despite Kuhn’s views, it could be argued that psychology does have a paradigm. For example, the acceptance of the scientific method to test theories. Psychology has also gone through paradigm shifts, such as Wundt’s structuralism, to behaviourism, to the cognitive neuroscience model being dominant in the subject."
"How is science characterized according to the content?"	"Science is characterized by internal conflict and may not have a paradigm of its own."
"Define the arguments in favour of psychology being a science."	"The arguments in favour include: theories are based on empirical evidence, empirical evidence sometimes produces unexpected results showing that psychology is more than just ‘common sense’, it has arguably gone through paradigm shifts, and theories developed have led to treatments for abnormal behaviours, which have greatly helped people."
"What are the arguments against psychology being a science?"	"The arguments against include: the methods used in psychology are prone to bias, it may not be possible to produce universal laws in psychology, some psychological theories are not directly testable so can’t be objectively measured, and there are a number of competing explanations and theories for human behaviour- there is not one accepted paradigm."
"How are psychological investigations reported?"	"When psychologists publish research, it is validated by other psychologists (peer review) and becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Psychological reports are formal documents that are composed of a series of sections, each governed by conventions which allow for the information to be conveyed clearly, precisely and effectively."
"What is the purpose of the title and abstract in a psychological report?"	"The title determines who reads the full report. It should be concise yet informative. The abstract is a brief (150-200 words) summary of the report. If a psychologist finds the title to be useful, the next step is for them to read the abstract."
"Describe the purpose of the 'Introduction' section in a psychological report."	"The 'Introduction' section is designed to introduce the reader to the topic area and background to the study. It includes relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question, allowing the reader to place the study in context."
"What is the importance of the 'Method' section in a psychological report?"	"The 'Method' section describes how the study was conducted, providing enough information to allow for replication. This is crucial for checking the reliability and validity of the findings. It includes the design, participants, apparatus/resources/materials, pilot study (if applicable) and procedure."
"Define the 'Results' section in a psychological report."	"The 'Results' section reports the findings of the study clearly and accurately. It may report the findings in words, or use visual interpretations of the data in the form of graphs, tables, etc. It usually also includes the results of inferential analyses to determine whether results are significant."
"What is the role of the 'Discussion' section in a psychological report?"	"The 'Discussion' section begins with a summary of the findings of the results before offering explanations of the behaviours observed. It may also consider the implications of the research and make suggestions for further research."
"What is included in the 'References/Bibliography' section of a psychological report?"	"The 'References/Bibliography' section includes complete details of all research documents, journals, internet resources and books that were mentioned and used for additional background research."
"What is the purpose of the 'Appendices' section in a psychological report?"	"The 'Appendices' section is comprised of a copy of all resources/materials used within the study, raw data and statistical calculations."

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[{"id":1591338,"front":"Describe the concept of 'Objectivity and the empirical method' in science.","back":"Objectivity in science refers to the idea that researchers should not let their personal biases affect the results of studies. The empirical method refers to using observable evidence to draw conclusions and propose theories. The most objective research method is often the laboratory experiment, where variables are closely controlled.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Objectivity in science ensures researchers remain impartial, avoiding personal biases. The empirical method relies on observable evidence for drawing conclusions and forming theories. Laboratory experiments are often the most objective, as they tightly control variables.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591343,"front":"Define 'Replicability' in the context of scientific studies.","back":"Replicability refers to the ability to repeat scientific studies to check the reliability of the findings. If similar results are seen each time the study is repeated, the results are considered generalizable and the validity of the study is strengthened.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Replicability in scientific studies is crucial for validating research findings. When a study's results can be consistently reproduced, it enhances confidence in the reliability and generalizability of the findings. This process is fundamental for building a robust body of scientific knowledge.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591349,"front":"What does 'Falsifiability' mean in scientific theory, as proposed by Karl Popper?","back":"Falsifiability, as proposed by Karl Popper, means that for a theory to be truly scientific, it must be possible to prove it wrong. Theories which survive repeated attempts to prove them wrong can be accepted as being very likely to be true.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Falsifiability, according to Karl Popper, is a criterion for scientific theories. It suggests that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be potentially disprovable through observation or experimentation. This concept emphasizes the importance of empirical testing and the ability to reject or revise theories based on evidence.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591356,"front":"Explain the process of 'Theory construction and hypothesis testing' in science.","back":"Theory construction involves creating a set of general laws or rules to explain events or behaviours. A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on the theory. Once a study is conducted, the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected, leading to acceptance or modification of the theory. This process is known as deduction.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Theory construction in science involves formulating general laws or rules to explain phenomena. Hypothesis testing entails creating testable predictions based on the theory. Through experimentation, hypotheses are either accepted or rejected, leading to refinement or acceptance of the theory. This process is a form of deductive reasoning.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591361,"front":"What are 'Paradigms and paradigm shifts' in the context of science?","back":"A paradigm is a set of assumptions or a generally accepted way of thinking within a discipline. A paradigm shift occurs when the dominant paradigm is replaced by a new one. In psychology, there are multiple competing paradigms, each offering a different explanation of human behaviour.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Paradigms in science refer to the established beliefs, theories, and methods that guide research and understanding within a particular field. They provide a framework for scientists to interpret data and make sense of the world. A paradigm shift occurs when new evidence or ideas challenge the existing paradigm, leading to a fundamental change in how scientists view and approach a subject. This can result in a shift in research focus, methodologies, and even the underlying assumptions of a discipline. In psychology, for example, different paradigms such as behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and psychoanalysis offer distinct perspectives on human behavior and mental processes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591371,"front":"Describe the concept of a paradigm shift according to Kuhn.","back":"A paradigm shift, according to Kuhn, is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. This happens once enough evidence emerges to challenge the current paradigm. An example is when Einstein’s theory of relativity changed the accepted assumptions within physics.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Thomas Kuhn's concept of a paradigm shift involves a significant transformation in the fundamental concepts and experimental methods of a scientific field. This occurs when accumulating evidence challenges the existing paradigm. For instance, Einstein's theory of relativity revolutionized the assumptions in physics, illustrating a paradigm shift.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591378,"front":"Do psychology theories have a paradigm?","back":"Despite Kuhn’s views, it could be argued that psychology does have a paradigm. For example, the acceptance of the scientific method to test theories. Psychology has also gone through paradigm shifts, such as Wundt’s structuralism, to behaviourism, to the cognitive neuroscience model being dominant in the subject.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Psychology does have a paradigm as it follows the scientific method to test theories. The field has undergone paradigm shifts, from structuralism to behaviorism to the current dominance of the cognitive neuroscience model. This evolution reflects a paradigmatic framework in psychology.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591381,"front":"How is science characterized according to the content?","back":"Science is characterized by internal conflict and may not have a paradigm of its own.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Science is characterized by the presence of internal conflict and the absence of a single dominant paradigm. This means that scientific knowledge is often shaped by competing theories and perspectives, leading to ongoing debate and evolution within the field.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591388,"front":"Define the arguments in favour of psychology being a science.","back":"The arguments in favour include: theories are based on empirical evidence, empirical evidence sometimes produces unexpected results showing that psychology is more than just ‘common sense’, it has arguably gone through paradigm shifts, and theories developed have led to treatments for abnormal behaviours, which have greatly helped people.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Psychology is considered a science due to its reliance on empirical evidence, which can yield unexpected results challenging common sense. It has undergone paradigm shifts and its theories have led to effective treatments for abnormal behaviors, benefiting many individuals.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591409,"front":"What are the arguments against psychology being a science?","back":"The arguments against include: the methods used in psychology are prone to bias, it may not be possible to produce universal laws in psychology, some psychological theories are not directly testable so can’t be objectively measured, and there are a number of competing explanations and theories for human behaviour- there is not one accepted paradigm.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Some arguments against psychology being a science include the potential for bias in its methods, the difficulty in establishing universal laws, the lack of direct testability for certain theories, and the presence of multiple competing explanations and theories. Additionally, the absence of a single accepted paradigm in psychology adds to the skepticism about its scientific status. These concerns highlight the challenges in applying traditional scientific methods to the study of human behavior and mental processes.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591424,"front":"How are psychological investigations reported?","back":"When psychologists publish research, it is validated by other psychologists (peer review) and becomes part of the permanent scientific record. Psychological reports are formal documents that are composed of a series of sections, each governed by conventions which allow for the information to be conveyed clearly, precisely and effectively.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Psychological investigations are reported through a rigorous process of peer review and publication in formal documents. These reports adhere to specific conventions to ensure clear and effective communication of research findings, contributing to the permanent scientific record.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591435,"front":"What is the purpose of the title and abstract in a psychological report?","back":"The title determines who reads the full report. It should be concise yet informative. The abstract is a brief (150-200 words) summary of the report. If a psychologist finds the title to be useful, the next step is for them to read the abstract.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The title serves as a quick overview, guiding the appropriate audience to the report. It needs to be clear and informative. The abstract provides a concise summary, helping psychologists decide whether to delve into the full report. Both elements are crucial for efficient information retrieval.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591440,"front":"Describe the purpose of the 'Introduction' section in a psychological report.","back":"The 'Introduction' section is designed to introduce the reader to the topic area and background to the study. It includes relevant theories and past studies/research relevant to the research question, allowing the reader to place the study in context.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591446,"front":"What is the importance of the 'Method' section in a psychological report?","back":"The 'Method' section describes how the study was conducted, providing enough information to allow for replication. This is crucial for checking the reliability and validity of the findings. It includes the design, participants, apparatus/resources/materials, pilot study (if applicable) and procedure.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591467,"front":"Define the 'Results' section in a psychological report.","back":"The 'Results' section reports the findings of the study clearly and accurately. It may report the findings in words, or use visual interpretations of the data in the form of graphs, tables, etc. It usually also includes the results of inferential analyses to determine whether results are significant.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591471,"front":"What is the role of the 'Discussion' section in a psychological report?","back":"The 'Discussion' section begins with a summary of the findings of the results before offering explanations of the behaviours observed. It may also consider the implications of the research and make suggestions for further research.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591476,"front":"What is included in the 'References/Bibliography' section of a psychological report?","back":"The 'References/Bibliography' section includes complete details of all research documents, journals, internet resources and books that were mentioned and used for additional background research.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The 'References/Bibliography' section is crucial in a psychological report as it provides transparency and credibility by listing all sources referenced. This allows readers to verify information and explore further. It also demonstrates the thoroughness of the research process.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1591480,"front":"What is the purpose of the 'Appendices' section in a psychological report?","back":"The 'Appendices' section is comprised of a copy of all resources/materials used within the study, raw data and statistical calculations.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The \"Appendices\" section in a psychological report serves to provide transparency and support for the study's findings. It allows readers to access the raw data, statistical calculations, and resources used, enhancing the credibility and replicability of the research.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"Xcp1M","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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