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Define 'Sex' in the context of psychology.

In psychology, 'Sex' is the classification of being male or female. It is biologically determined by chromosomes and hormones, is fixed and cannot be changed, and is innate due to the influence of nature only.

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"Define 'Sex' in the context of psychology."	"In psychology, 'Sex' is the classification of being male or female. It is biologically determined by chromosomes and hormones, is fixed and cannot be changed, and is innate due to the influence of nature only."
"Describe the concept of 'Gender' in psychology."	"'Gender' is the psychological sense of feeling masculine or feminine. It is influenced by psychological and social factors, the role of nature and nurture play a part, and is more fluid and open to change. Gender can be changed through gender reassignment surgery."
"What is 'Gender identity disorder'?"	"'Gender identity disorder' is a condition where there is a mismatch between a person's biological sex and psychological gender. This is referred to as gender dysphoria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Some individuals with this condition decide to have gender reassignment surgery and become transgender."
"Explain 'Sex-role stereotypes'."	"'Sex-role stereotypes' are expectations or pre-conceived ideas of what is 'typical' male and female behaviours. These may change from time to time and between (and within) cultures, and are communicated in many ways, for example through parents, at school, in the media, and so on."
"Define 'Androgyny' in the context of psychology."	"'Androgyny' is the psychological state of possessing a balance of male and female psychological characteristics. Androgynous people are argued to be more mentally healthy."
"What is the 'BSRI'?"	"The 'BSRI' or Bem Sex Role Inventory, devised by Sandra Bem in 1974, is a way of measuring the extent to which a person is androgynous. It includes a list of behaviours and characteristics, some of which are classified as 'masculine', some 'feminine', and some 'neutral'. A high score for both the masculine and feminine items indicates androgyny in the participant."
"How is the concept of 'gender' evaluated in the context of the BSRI?"	"The BSRI broadly matches with the participant’s own reported sense of gender identity, suggesting it is a valid measure of gender. However, it has been argued that androgyny may not be the most beneficial thing for mental health, and that having more masculine traits is more advantageous. Also, assessing a person’s sense of gender by completing the BSRI reduces the complex concept of 'gender' to a series of numbers, therefore not reflecting the reality of gender."
"Describe the role of chromosomes in determining an individual's sex."	"Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, one of which is the sex chromosome pair. The female chromosome pair is XX and the male chromosome pair is XY. The Y chromosome determines the sex of the child. There is a direct link between an individual’s chromosomal sex (XX or XY) and their external and internal genitalia."
"Define DNA, genes, chromosomes, and hormones."	"DNA is a self-replicating material that carries genetic material. Genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of a living thing. Chromosomes are objects found in the nucleus of most cells, made from DNA. Hormones are chemicals that travel around the body affecting the activity of cells and organs."
"How do hormones influence gender behavior?"	"Hormones influence the development of genitalia and/or affect the development of the brain, both of which influence gender behavior. For example, testosterone is linked with behaviors such as increased aggression, and oestrogen is linked with emotional changes during the menstrual cycle."
"Explain the effects of testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin."	"Testosterone is a male hormone, which develops the male sex organs and is linked with behaviors such as increased aggression. Oestrogen is a female hormone which develops female sexual characteristics and is linked with emotional changes during the menstrual cycle. Oxytocin is a hormone which facilitates bonding, released in large doses after childbirth and during sexual intercourse in both sexes."
"Describe Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia."	"Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome occurs when a genetic male is not exposed to enough testosterone in the womb, and can look physically female at birth. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia occurs when a genetic female is exposed to too much testosterone, causing genitalia to appear swollen and potentially leading to more masculine behavior."
"Describe the case of David Reimer and its significance in understanding the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender behavior."	"David Reimer was born as Bruce and lost his penis due to an accident during circumcision. Psychologist John Money suggested that Bruce be raised as a girl, 'Brenda', arguing that gender is created by upbringing and environment. However, Brenda felt suicidal and upon learning the truth, chose to live as a man, 'David'. This case suggests that nature (chromosomes and hormones) can override nurture (upbringing and environment) in determining gender behavior."
"Define Klinefelter’s syndrome and its effects."	"Klinefelter’s syndrome is an abnormal chromosome pattern in males, where there is an extra X chromosome ('XXY'). Effects include reduced body hair, breast development, 'soft' body contours, long limbs, underdeveloped genitalia, poor language/reading skills, passive and shy behavior, and poorer memory/problem-solving skills."
"Define Turner’s syndrome and its effects."	"Turner’s syndrome is an abnormal chromosome pattern in females, where there is only one X chromosome ('X'). Effects include no menstrual cycle, broad chest and webbed neck, high waist-to-hip ratio, physical immaturity, higher reading ability, poorer spatial, visual, maths ability, and social immaturity."
"How do cognitive theories explain gender behavior?"	"Cognitive theories suggest that cognition ('thinking') has an impact on gender behavior. They emphasize that environmental factors and brain development influence cognition, and cognition in turn influences gender behavior. A child's sense of their own gender is critical in the acquisition of gender behavior."
"What did Van Goozen et al (1995) find about the link between hormones and gender behavior?"	"Van Goozen et al (1995) found that when injected with male or female hormones, transgender individuals demonstrated more typical male or female behaviors (in line with the hormones they were receiving). This supports the link between hormones and gender behavior."
"What did Tricker et al (1996) find about the link between hormones and gender behavior?"	"Tricker et al (1996) found that there were no differences in behaviors amongst participants injected with testosterone or a placebo. This weakens the link between hormones and gender behavior."
"Describe the first stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development."	"The first stage is Gender Identity (2-3 ½ years). In this stage, children can identify themselves and others as male or female based on appearance. However, they may believe that gender can change over time or in different situations."
"What is the second stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development?"	"The second stage is Gender Stability (3 ½-4 ½ years). In this stage, children recognize that their own gender will not change over time. However, they may still believe that other people's gender can change in different situations."
"Define the third stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development."	"The third stage is Gender Constancy/Gender Consistency (6-7 years). In this stage, children understand that gender is independent of clothing or hair and is constant over time and situations. They also start to seek same-sex role models."
"How did Slaby and Frey's research support Kohlberg's theory of gender development?"	"Slaby and Frey found that children did not recognize that gender traits were stable over time until they were 3 or 4 years old, which supports the predictions of Kohlberg's theory. They also found that children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models."
"What evidence challenges Kohlberg's theory of gender development?"	"Bussey and Bandura found that 4 year-olds reported feeling 'awful' about playing with gender-inappropriate toys, suggesting that children may acquire a fixed sense of gender before age 6-7. This challenges the prediction of Kohlberg's theory."
"What are some methodological issues with investigating cognitive theories like Kohlberg's theory of gender development?"	"There are issues with interviewing children to investigate cognitive theories. Children may not have the vocabulary to adequately express what they are thinking, therefore it may not be a valid way of investigating cognitions."

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[{"id":1633087,"front":"Define 'Sex' in the context of psychology.","back":"In psychology, 'Sex' is the classification of being male or female. It is biologically determined by chromosomes and hormones, is fixed and cannot be changed, and is innate due to the influence of nature only.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"In psychology, 'Sex' refers to the biological categorization of individuals as male or female based on genetic and physiological characteristics. This classification is considered immutable and is primarily influenced by nature rather than nurture.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633107,"front":"Describe the concept of 'Gender' in psychology.","back":"'Gender' is the psychological sense of feeling masculine or feminine. It is influenced by psychological and social factors, the role of nature and nurture play a part, and is more fluid and open to change. Gender can be changed through gender reassignment surgery.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The concept of gender in psychology encompasses identity, roles, and expression, shaped by cultural, social, and individual experiences. It recognizes that gender is not strictly binary but exists on a spectrum, allowing for diverse identities. This fluidity reflects evolving societal norms and personal understanding of self.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633115,"front":"What is 'Gender identity disorder'?","back":"'Gender identity disorder' is a condition where there is a mismatch between a person's biological sex and psychological gender. This is referred to as gender dysphoria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Some individuals with this condition decide to have gender reassignment surgery and become transgender.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633129,"front":"Explain 'Sex-role stereotypes'.","back":"'Sex-role stereotypes' are expectations or pre-conceived ideas of what is 'typical' male and female behaviours. These may change from time to time and between (and within) cultures, and are communicated in many ways, for example through parents, at school, in the media, and so on.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633132,"front":"Define 'Androgyny' in the context of psychology.","back":"'Androgyny' is the psychological state of possessing a balance of male and female psychological characteristics. Androgynous people are argued to be more mentally healthy.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Androgyny in psychology suggests that individuals can exhibit both traditionally masculine and feminine traits, leading to greater adaptability and flexibility in behavior. This concept challenges traditional gender norms and highlights the benefits of embracing a diverse range of characteristics for overall well-being.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633142,"front":"What is the 'BSRI'?","back":"The 'BSRI' or Bem Sex Role Inventory, devised by Sandra Bem in 1974, is a way of measuring the extent to which a person is androgynous. It includes a list of behaviours and characteristics, some of which are classified as 'masculine', some 'feminine', and some 'neutral'. A high score for both the masculine and feminine items indicates androgyny in the participant.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) is a psychological tool that challenges traditional gender roles by measuring androgyny. It assesses individuals based on a spectrum of behaviors rather than rigid male or female categories, promoting a more nuanced understanding of gender identity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633149,"front":"How is the concept of 'gender' evaluated in the context of the BSRI?","back":"The BSRI broadly matches with the participant’s own reported sense of gender identity, suggesting it is a valid measure of gender. However, it has been argued that androgyny may not be the most beneficial thing for mental health, and that having more masculine traits is more advantageous. Also, assessing a person’s sense of gender by completing the BSRI reduces the complex concept of 'gender' to a series of numbers, therefore not reflecting the reality of gender.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The BSRI is considered a valid measure of gender as it aligns with individuals' reported gender identity. However, there are debates about the benefits of androgyny for mental health and the advantages of having more masculine traits. Some argue that reducing gender to numerical scores on the BSRI oversimplifies the complex concept of gender, failing to capture its true reality.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633150,"front":"Describe the role of chromosomes in determining an individual's sex.","back":"Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, one of which is the sex chromosome pair. The female chromosome pair is XX and the male chromosome pair is XY. The Y chromosome determines the sex of the child. There is a direct link between an individual’s chromosomal sex (XX or XY) and their external and internal genitalia.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633151,"front":"Define DNA, genes, chromosomes, and hormones.","back":"DNA is a self-replicating material that carries genetic material. Genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of a living thing. Chromosomes are objects found in the nucleus of most cells, made from DNA. Hormones are chemicals that travel around the body affecting the activity of cells and organs.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633152,"front":"How do hormones influence gender behavior?","back":"Hormones influence the development of genitalia and/or affect the development of the brain, both of which influence gender behavior. For example, testosterone is linked with behaviors such as increased aggression, and oestrogen is linked with emotional changes during the menstrual cycle.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633153,"front":"Explain the effects of testosterone, oestrogen, and oxytocin.","back":"Testosterone is a male hormone, which develops the male sex organs and is linked with behaviors such as increased aggression. Oestrogen is a female hormone which develops female sexual characteristics and is linked with emotional changes during the menstrual cycle. Oxytocin is a hormone which facilitates bonding, released in large doses after childbirth and during sexual intercourse in both sexes.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Testosterone influences male traits like muscle mass and voice deepening. Oestrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. Oxytocin fosters social bonding and trust. These hormones play crucial roles in shaping physical, emotional, and behavioral aspects in individuals.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633162,"front":"Describe Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia.","back":"Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome occurs when a genetic male is not exposed to enough testosterone in the womb, and can look physically female at birth. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia occurs when a genetic female is exposed to too much testosterone, causing genitalia to appear swollen and potentially leading to more masculine behavior.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome results from the body's inability to respond to male sex hormones, leading to atypical development. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia involves excess male hormones in females, affecting physical and behavioral traits. Both conditions highlight the complex role of hormones in sexual development.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633173,"front":"Describe the case of David Reimer and its significance in understanding the role of chromosomes and hormones in gender behavior.","back":"David Reimer was born as Bruce and lost his penis due to an accident during circumcision. Psychologist John Money suggested that Bruce be raised as a girl, 'Brenda', arguing that gender is created by upbringing and environment. However, Brenda felt suicidal and upon learning the truth, chose to live as a man, 'David'. This case suggests that nature (chromosomes and hormones) can override nurture (upbringing and environment) in determining gender behavior.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633181,"front":"Define Klinefelter’s syndrome and its effects.","back":"Klinefelter’s syndrome is an abnormal chromosome pattern in males, where there is an extra X chromosome ('XXY'). Effects include reduced body hair, breast development, 'soft' body contours, long limbs, underdeveloped genitalia, poor language/reading skills, passive and shy behavior, and poorer memory/problem-solving skills.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633192,"front":"Define Turner’s syndrome and its effects.","back":"Turner’s syndrome is an abnormal chromosome pattern in females, where there is only one X chromosome ('X'). Effects include no menstrual cycle, broad chest and webbed neck, high waist-to-hip ratio, physical immaturity, higher reading ability, poorer spatial, visual, maths ability, and social immaturity.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633198,"front":"How do cognitive theories explain gender behavior?","back":"Cognitive theories suggest that cognition ('thinking') has an impact on gender behavior. They emphasize that environmental factors and brain development influence cognition, and cognition in turn influences gender behavior. A child's sense of their own gender is critical in the acquisition of gender behavior.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633205,"front":"What did Van Goozen et al (1995) find about the link between hormones and gender behavior?","back":"Van Goozen et al (1995) found that when injected with male or female hormones, transgender individuals demonstrated more typical male or female behaviors (in line with the hormones they were receiving). This supports the link between hormones and gender behavior.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The findings highlight the significant role hormones play in shaping gender behavior, suggesting that biological factors can influence psychological and social aspects of identity. This research contributes to the understanding of gender as a complex interplay of biology and environment, emphasizing the importance of hormonal influences in gender expression.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633219,"front":"What did Tricker et al (1996) find about the link between hormones and gender behavior?","back":"Tricker et al (1996) found that there were no differences in behaviors amongst participants injected with testosterone or a placebo. This weakens the link between hormones and gender behavior.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633227,"front":"Describe the first stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development.","back":"The first stage is Gender Identity (2-3 ½ years). In this stage, children can identify themselves and others as male or female based on appearance. However, they may believe that gender can change over time or in different situations.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633234,"front":"What is the second stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development?","back":"The second stage is Gender Stability (3 ½-4 ½ years). In this stage, children recognize that their own gender will not change over time. However, they may still believe that other people's gender can change in different situations.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633242,"front":"Define the third stage of Kohlberg's theory of gender development.","back":"The third stage is Gender Constancy/Gender Consistency (6-7 years). In this stage, children understand that gender is independent of clothing or hair and is constant over time and situations. They also start to seek same-sex role models.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633259,"front":"How did Slaby and Frey's research support Kohlberg's theory of gender development?","back":"Slaby and Frey found that children did not recognize that gender traits were stable over time until they were 3 or 4 years old, which supports the predictions of Kohlberg's theory. They also found that children in the gender constancy stage spent longer looking at same-sex adults, supporting the idea of role models.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633272,"front":"What evidence challenges Kohlberg's theory of gender development?","back":"Bussey and Bandura found that 4 year-olds reported feeling 'awful' about playing with gender-inappropriate toys, suggesting that children may acquire a fixed sense of gender before age 6-7. This challenges the prediction of Kohlberg's theory.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1633286,"front":"What are some methodological issues with investigating cognitive theories like Kohlberg's theory of gender development?","back":"There are issues with interviewing children to investigate cognitive theories. Children may not have the vocabulary to adequately express what they are thinking, therefore it may not be a valid way of investigating cognitions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"DuADO","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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