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Research Methods: Techniques

A-Level AQA Psychology

This flashcard pack covers various research methods and their evaluations in psychology. It includes descriptions of experimental designs such as laboratory, field, natural, and quasi experiments, along with observational techniques such as naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant, and non-participant observations. It also explains self-report techniques, interviews, correlational studies, content analysis, and case studies, addressing the strengths, weaknesses, and biases associated with each method.

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"Describe a laboratory experiment in research methods."	"A laboratory experiment is conducted in a highly controlled environment. The independent variable (IV) is manipulated to see the impact on the dependent variable (DV), while the effects of other variables are minimized as far as possible. It has high internal validity and reliability but may lack external validity due to its artificial nature."
"What are the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments?"	"Field experiments have higher external validity and less demand characteristics as they are conducted in a more natural setting. However, they have less control over extraneous variables, making it harder to determine if the IV has affected the DV. They also raise ethical issues if participants are unaware they are being studied."
"Define a natural experiment in research methods."	"A natural experiment studies the effects of a naturally occurring independent variable. Participants may still be studied in a lab-type setting to see the effects, but the IV is not manipulated by the researcher. It has high external validity but less control over extraneous variables."
"What is a quasi experiment in research methods?"	"A quasi experiment is where the independent variable is based on an existing difference between people. It can be tested under controlled conditions, increasing the scientific credibility of the research. However, participants can't be randomly allocated to conditions, introducing possible confounding variables."
"What are observational techniques in research methods?"	"Observational techniques involve watching and recording people’s behaviour in a natural setting. They are often used in field experiments and natural experiments."
"Describe naturalistic and controlled observations."	"Naturalistic observations take place within a natural, non-manipulated environment, such as a workplace or school. Controlled observations are more manipulated, like the Strange Situation, so that variables are more controlled and effects of particular situations can be seen."
"What are the evaluations of naturalistic and controlled observations?"	"Naturalistic observations are high in external validity as they are very true-to-life, but have lower levels of control. Controlled observations have lower external validity, but more control, allowing for easier replication."
"Define covert and overt observations."	"Covert observations take place without the participants being aware that they are being watched. Overt observations are when the participant does know they are being watched, and have given prior consent."
"What are the evaluations of covert and overt observations?"	"Covert observations have no participant reactivity, so more truthful behaviour is shown, but there are ethical issues due to lack of consent. Overt observations may result in participants changing their behaviour, but they are more ethically sound."
"Describe participant and non-participant observations."	"Participant observations are when the researcher themselves takes part, for example by joining the workforce in a workplace. Non-participant observations are when the researcher does not actually participate, but just observes."
"What are the evaluations of participant and non-participant observations?"	"In participant observations, the researcher gets a greater insight into the experiences of those being observed, but they may lose objectivity. In non-participant observations, the researcher is more likely to remain objective, but may lack the extra insight gained from being a participant."
"What are self-report techniques?"	"Self-report techniques involve asking people about their behaviour. These can include questionnaires, which are sets of questions which participants complete independently."
"What are the advantages of using questionnaires in research?"	"Questionnaires can be sent to potentially thousands of people, without the researcher needing to be present whilst they are completed. The responses will usually be easy to analyse, especially if the questions are closed."
"Describe the concept of social desirability bias."	"Social desirability bias refers to the tendency of respondents to not be truthful in order to present themselves in a better light. For example, underestimating the amount of alcohol they drink."
"Define response bias and give an example."	"Response bias refers to the tendency of respondents to answer all questions in a similar way without properly reading the questions. An example is ticking 'yes' for everything."
"What is acquiescence bias?"	"Acquiescence bias is a tendency to agree with things, meaning that the questionnaire is measuring a tendency to agree rather than what it is intending to measure."
"Explain the difference between structured and unstructured interviews."	"Structured interviews involve a set of pre-determined questions that the interviewer does not deviate from. Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, allow the interviewer to create questions in response to the participant's answers during the interview."
"What is a correlation in research methods?"	"A correlation measures the relationship between two variables, and the strength of that relationship. They can be positive, negative, or non-existent."
"How do correlations differ from experiments?"	"In an experiment, the researcher manipulates an independent variable, controls all other variables, and records the effect on the dependent variable. In a correlation, there is no manipulation of either variable- they are known as co-variables. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that one co-variable has caused the other to change, just that there is a correlation between them."
"What are the benefits of using correlations in research?"	"Correlations can be used as a starting point for further research. If no relationship is found, then there is no need to undertake experiments into the subject. They are also quite easy to conduct- the researcher just needs to find two sets of data to compare."
"Describe the potential issue with correlational studies and their findings."	"The findings of correlational studies are often reported as facts, leading to misinterpretations. This is because demonstrating a cause-effect link is not possible, as other variables might be involved."
"Define Content Analysis as a research method."	"Content Analysis is a type of observational research in which something that has been produced (such as newspaper articles and television adverts) is studied. The aim is to analyse the communication in order to detect trends and make conclusions."
"What are the strengths and weaknesses of Content Analysis?"	"Strengths of Content Analysis include high external validity, as what is being analysed is the material that people consume in ‘real life’. It allows for the investigation of potentially sensitive topics, without the need for consent, as the material is in the public domain. However, it may not take into account the motivations of the people that created the content in the first place, potentially weakening the validity of conclusions that can be drawn."
"Define a Case Study as a research method."	"A case study is an in-depth investigation, usually of one person or a small group of people. Individuals studied may have particular conditions or unusual characteristics. Case studies often produce qualitative data, as unstructured interviews and observations may be used."
"What are the strengths and weaknesses of Case Studies?"	"Case studies produce rich, detailed, in-depth data, giving a close insight into particular behaviours. However, it can be difficult to generalise the findings from case studies, as the sample sizes are so small. Data is often collected retrospectively, so relies on the recall of the participant or their friends or family members, which may be inaccurate."

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Describe a laboratory experiment in research methods.

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A laboratory experiment is conducted in a highly controlled environment. The independent variable (IV) is manipulated to see the impact on the dependent variable (DV), while the effects of other variables are minimized as far as possible. It has high internal validity and reliability but may lack external validity due to its artificial nature.

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[{"id":1592144,"front":"Describe a laboratory experiment in research methods.","back":"A laboratory experiment is conducted in a highly controlled environment. The independent variable (IV) is manipulated to see the impact on the dependent variable (DV), while the effects of other variables are minimized as far as possible. It has high internal validity and reliability but may lack external validity due to its artificial nature.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Laboratory experiments are conducted in controlled settings to manipulate the independent variable and observe its impact on the dependent variable. This design allows for high internal validity and reliability but may limit generalizability due to its artificial environment.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592148,"front":"What are the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments?","back":"Field experiments have higher external validity and less demand characteristics as they are conducted in a more natural setting. However, they have less control over extraneous variables, making it harder to determine if the IV has affected the DV. They also raise ethical issues if participants are unaware they are being studied.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Field experiments offer higher external validity and reduced demand characteristics due to their natural setting. However, they lack control over extraneous variables, impacting the ability to establish cause and effect. Additionally, ethical concerns arise when participants are unaware of being studied.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592157,"front":"Define a natural experiment in research methods.","back":"A natural experiment studies the effects of a naturally occurring independent variable. Participants may still be studied in a lab-type setting to see the effects, but the IV is not manipulated by the researcher. It has high external validity but less control over extraneous variables.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Natural experiments are valuable in research as they allow researchers to study real-world phenomena without direct manipulation. This method provides high external validity, reflecting real-life situations. However, it sacrifices some control over extraneous variables compared to controlled experiments.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592167,"front":"What is a quasi experiment in research methods?","back":"A quasi experiment is where the independent variable is based on an existing difference between people. It can be tested under controlled conditions, increasing the scientific credibility of the research. However, participants can't be randomly allocated to conditions, introducing possible confounding variables.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Quasi experiments are valuable when random assignment is not feasible, such as in studying pre-existing conditions. While they offer more control than observational studies, the lack of randomization can make it challenging to establish causal relationships definitively due to potential confounding factors.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592174,"front":"What are observational techniques in research methods?","back":"Observational techniques involve watching and recording people’s behaviour in a natural setting. They are often used in field experiments and natural experiments.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Observational techniques are valuable in research as they allow for the study of behavior in real-life settings, providing authentic data. This method is particularly useful in field and natural experiments, offering insights into human behavior without artificial influences.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592185,"front":"Describe naturalistic and controlled observations.","back":"Naturalistic observations take place within a natural, non-manipulated environment, such as a workplace or school. Controlled observations are more manipulated, like the Strange Situation, so that variables are more controlled and effects of particular situations can be seen.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Naturalistic observations allow researchers to study behavior in real-world settings, capturing authentic interactions. In contrast, controlled observations enable the isolation of specific variables, facilitating clearer cause-and-effect conclusions. Both methods provide valuable insights, but they serve different research purposes and contexts.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592186,"front":"What are the evaluations of naturalistic and controlled observations?","back":"Naturalistic observations are high in external validity as they are very true-to-life, but have lower levels of control. Controlled observations have lower external validity, but more control, allowing for easier replication.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Naturalistic observations offer a realistic view of behavior in natural settings but lack control over variables. Controlled observations provide controlled conditions for precise measurement but may not reflect real-world behavior accurately. Both types have strengths and limitations in terms of validity and control.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592187,"front":"Define covert and overt observations.","back":"Covert observations take place without the participants being aware that they are being watched. Overt observations are when the participant does know they are being watched, and have given prior consent.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Covert observations can reduce the risk of participant bias, as individuals may alter their behavior if they know they are being observed. In contrast, overt observations promote ethical transparency and can foster trust, allowing for more natural interactions, but may influence the authenticity of the data collected.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592188,"front":"What are the evaluations of covert and overt observations?","back":"Covert observations have no participant reactivity, so more truthful behaviour is shown, but there are ethical issues due to lack of consent. Overt observations may result in participants changing their behaviour, but they are more ethically sound.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Covert observations involve observing individuals without their knowledge, which reduces participant reactivity and may lead to more genuine behavior. However, ethical concerns arise due to the lack of informed consent. On the other hand, overt observations involve openly observing participants, which may cause them to alter their behavior. Despite this limitation, overt observations are generally considered more ethically acceptable.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592189,"front":"Describe participant and non-participant observations.","back":"Participant observations are when the researcher themselves takes part, for example by joining the workforce in a workplace. Non-participant observations are when the researcher does not actually participate, but just observes.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Participant observations allow researchers to gain deeper insights by immersing themselves in the environment, fostering trust and rapport. In contrast, non-participant observations maintain objectivity, minimizing the influence of the researcher on the subjects. Each method serves distinct research goals and contexts.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592191,"front":"What are the evaluations of participant and non-participant observations?","back":"In participant observations, the researcher gets a greater insight into the experiences of those being observed, but they may lose objectivity. In non-participant observations, the researcher is more likely to remain objective, but may lack the extra insight gained from being a participant.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Participant observations allow researchers to immerse themselves in the environment, fostering deeper understanding and rapport with subjects. However, this closeness can cloud judgment. Conversely, non-participant observations maintain a critical distance, enhancing objectivity but potentially missing nuanced insights that come from direct involvement.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592197,"front":"What are self-report techniques?","back":"Self-report techniques involve asking people about their behaviour. These can include questionnaires, which are sets of questions which participants complete independently.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Self-report techniques are valuable for gathering subjective data directly from individuals, allowing researchers to understand personal experiences, attitudes, and behaviors. They can reveal insights that may not be observable, but they also rely on the honesty and self-awareness of respondents, which can influence the data's reliability.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592208,"front":"What are the advantages of using questionnaires in research?","back":"Questionnaires can be sent to potentially thousands of people, without the researcher needing to be present whilst they are completed. The responses will usually be easy to analyse, especially if the questions are closed.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Questionnaires offer several advantages in research. They allow researchers to reach a large number of participants without the need for direct interaction. This saves time and resources. Additionally, questionnaires provide structured data that is easy to analyze, particularly when using closed-ended questions. This facilitates efficient data processing and enables researchers to draw meaningful conclusions from the responses.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592218,"front":"Describe the concept of social desirability bias.","back":"Social desirability bias refers to the tendency of respondents to not be truthful in order to present themselves in a better light. For example, underestimating the amount of alcohol they drink.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Social desirability bias occurs when individuals alter their responses to conform to social norms or expectations, rather than providing honest answers. This bias can lead to inaccurate data, as people may downplay or hide behaviors that are seen as socially undesirable. For instance, individuals may underreport their alcohol consumption to avoid judgment or to appear more virtuous. This bias can impact research findings and surveys, as it skews the data towards more socially acceptable responses.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592227,"front":"Define response bias and give an example.","back":"Response bias refers to the tendency of respondents to answer all questions in a similar way without properly reading the questions. An example is ticking 'yes' for everything.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Response bias can significantly skew research results, as it may not reflect true opinions or behaviors. This phenomenon often arises from survey fatigue or social desirability, where respondents choose answers they think are more acceptable rather than their genuine feelings. Understanding this bias is crucial for accurate data interpretation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592228,"front":"What is acquiescence bias?","back":"Acquiescence bias is a tendency to agree with things, meaning that the questionnaire is measuring a tendency to agree rather than what it is intending to measure.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Acquiescence bias refers to the tendency of individuals to agree with statements or questions, regardless of their true beliefs or opinions. This bias can skew survey results, as respondents may simply agree without carefully considering their responses. It is important for researchers to be aware of this bias and take steps to minimize its impact, such as using balanced scales or including reverse-worded items in surveys. By understanding acquiescence bias, researchers can ensure more accurate and reliable data collection.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592229,"front":"Explain the difference between structured and unstructured interviews.","back":"Structured interviews involve a set of pre-determined questions that the interviewer does not deviate from. Unstructured interviews, on the other hand, allow the interviewer to create questions in response to the participant's answers during the interview.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Structured interviews provide consistency and facilitate easier comparison of responses, making them ideal for quantitative research. Unstructured interviews, however, foster a more natural conversation, allowing for deeper insights and exploration of topics, which can be beneficial in qualitative research settings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592230,"front":"What is a correlation in research methods?","back":"A correlation measures the relationship between two variables, and the strength of that relationship. They can be positive, negative, or non-existent.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Correlations are essential in research as they help identify patterns and associations between variables, guiding further investigation. Understanding these relationships can inform predictions and highlight potential causal links, although correlation does not imply causation. This distinction is crucial in interpreting research findings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592231,"front":"How do correlations differ from experiments?","back":"In an experiment, the researcher manipulates an independent variable, controls all other variables, and records the effect on the dependent variable. In a correlation, there is no manipulation of either variable- they are known as co-variables. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that one co-variable has caused the other to change, just that there is a correlation between them.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Correlations differ from experiments because experiments involve manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable, while correlations simply show a relationship between two variables without manipulation or control of other variables. This means that causation cannot be inferred from a correlation.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592236,"front":"What are the benefits of using correlations in research?","back":"Correlations can be used as a starting point for further research. If no relationship is found, then there is no need to undertake experiments into the subject. They are also quite easy to conduct- the researcher just needs to find two sets of data to compare.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Correlations serve as a valuable tool in research by highlighting potential relationships between variables, guiding future inquiries. They simplify the initial analysis process, allowing researchers to efficiently allocate resources. Additionally, understanding correlations can inform hypotheses and shape experimental designs.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592241,"front":"Describe the potential issue with correlational studies and their findings.","back":"The findings of correlational studies are often reported as facts, leading to misinterpretations. This is because demonstrating a cause-effect link is not possible, as other variables might be involved.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Correlational studies reveal relationships between variables but do not establish causation. This limitation can lead to oversimplified conclusions, where external factors or confounding variables may influence the observed correlation, potentially skewing public perception and policy decisions based on these findings.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592242,"front":"Define Content Analysis as a research method.","back":"Content Analysis is a type of observational research in which something that has been produced (such as newspaper articles and television adverts) is studied. The aim is to analyse the communication in order to detect trends and make conclusions.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Content Analysis is a valuable research method for examining various forms of communication, such as media content. It allows researchers to systematically analyze and interpret the underlying messages and trends present in the material being studied, providing insights into societal norms, values, and behaviors.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592243,"front":"What are the strengths and weaknesses of Content Analysis?","back":"Strengths of Content Analysis include high external validity, as what is being analysed is the material that people consume in ‘real life’. It allows for the investigation of potentially sensitive topics, without the need for consent, as the material is in the public domain. However, it may not take into account the motivations of the people that created the content in the first place, potentially weakening the validity of conclusions that can be drawn.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Content Analysis is robust due to its ability to analyze real-world data without participant consent. It offers insights into sensitive topics. Yet, it may overlook creators' intentions, impacting result validity. This method's strength lies in its external validity but may lack internal validity.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592244,"front":"Define a Case Study as a research method.","back":"A case study is an in-depth investigation, usually of one person or a small group of people. Individuals studied may have particular conditions or unusual characteristics. Case studies often produce qualitative data, as unstructured interviews and observations may be used.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"A case study is a research method that involves conducting a detailed investigation of a single person or a small group. It is often used to study individuals with unique characteristics or specific conditions. Case studies typically generate qualitative data through unstructured interviews and observations. This method allows for a deep understanding of the subject and can provide valuable insights into complex phenomena.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1592248,"front":"What are the strengths and weaknesses of Case Studies?","back":"Case studies produce rich, detailed, in-depth data, giving a close insight into particular behaviours. However, it can be difficult to generalise the findings from case studies, as the sample sizes are so small. Data is often collected retrospectively, so relies on the recall of the participant or their friends or family members, which may be inaccurate.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"8GeRf","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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