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Psychological Explanations of Offending Behaviour

A-Level AQA Psychology

This pack of flashcards explores complex psychological theories related to criminal behavior, including Eysenck’s personality dimensions, the role of socialization, moral reasoning stages, and cognitive distortions. It delves into theories of offending behavior, methods like the Eysenck Personality Inventory for assessing traits, and the influences of intelligence and learned behaviors on criminality. The flashcards also examine Freudian perspectives on superego development and the impact of maternal deprivation on personality disorders.

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"Describe Eysenck’s Theory of Offending Behaviour"	"Eysenck’s theory proposes that behaviour can be measured along two dimensions: introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability. He later added a third dimension, psychoticism. He suggested that these personality traits originate from biology and are therefore innate. Eysenck argued that the criminal personality is a combination of extravert, neurotic, and psychotic characteristics."
"How did Eysenck view the role of socialisation in criminal behaviour?"	"Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature, as the criminal is concerned with instant gratification. If an individual had a high score in neuroticism and extraversion, they would find it hard to learn delayed gratification in childhood and be socialised properly, making them more likely to act in selfish, antisocial ways."
"What is the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)?"	"The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) is a test developed by Eysenck to measure where respondents would be placed along the introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability dimensions, to determine their personality type."
"What are some criticisms of Eysenck’s theory?"	"Critics argue that there are many different types of criminal personality, depending on the types of crimes and how they are carried out, making the idea of one criminal personality type over-simplistic. The method of measuring personality through a test which gives a score for different dimensions is also seen as reductionist, not reflecting the true complexity of personality and how it may differ over time."
"Define the concept of 'Level of Moral Reasoning' as suggested by Kohlberg."	"Kohlberg suggested that individuals have different levels of moral reasoning, which is the process of determining whether an action is right or wrong. This can be investigated by presenting individuals with imagined moral dilemmas."
"Describe the 'pre-conventional model' of moral development in relation to criminal behavior."	"The 'pre-conventional model' of moral development is characterized by a simple need to avoid punishment and gain rewards. This is a more childlike level of reasoning. Crime may be committed if the criminal thinks they will get away with it, or if it brings a significant enough reward. Offenders at this level are more likely to be egocentric (self-centred) and less concerned with the rights of others."
"Define 'cognitive distortions' in the context of criminal behavior."	"Cognitive distortions are errors in the way an individual thinks, which can be used to explain how criminals justify their behavior. Examples include hostile attribution bias and minimisation."
"How does 'hostile attribution bias' contribute to criminal behavior?"	"'Hostile attribution bias' is a tendency to misinterpret the actions of others, seeing them as hostile or confrontational when they are not. This serves as a trigger for possible aggressive behavior. Violent offenders are more likely to perceive emotionally ambiguous expressions as angry and hostile."
"What is 'minimisation' in the context of criminal behavior?"	"'Minimisation' is the act of denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence. This may involve using euphemisms (‘job’ rather than ‘robbery’). For example, some offenders try to justify their actions by claiming they were ‘showing affection’ or that the victim consented."
"How does cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) address cognitive distortions in offenders?"	"Through CBT, offenders can be encouraged to confront the seriousness of their actions. Research has found that successfully overcoming denial is correlated with lower rates of re-offending."
"How does intelligence relate to criminal behavior, according to Langdon et al (2010)?"	"Langdon et al (2010) argue that intelligence may be a better predictor of criminal behaviour than moral reasoning. People with very low intelligence, and also therefore low levels of moral reasoning, are actually less likely to commit crime."
"Describe the Differential Association Theory proposed by Sutherland (1939)."	"The Differential Association Theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through association with and interaction with different people. It posits that criminal behaviour arises from two factors: pro-criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts. If an individual is socialised into a group where there are more pro-criminal attitudes than anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend. The potential criminal also learns the practicalities of how to carry out criminal acts, such as picking a lock or disabling a car alarm system."
"What are the strengths of the Differential Association Theory?"	"The theory can explain why different types of crime are common amongst different groups of people, as the attitudes towards the crime and how to carry it out are learned and shared amongst the group. It also drew attention to the role of environments and learning in offending behaviour, moving away from the outdated atavistic approach and offering more practical solutions to the problem of crime."
"What are the criticisms of the Differential Association Theory?"	"The theory is hard to test, for example how to measure the amount of pro-criminal attitudes a person has been exposed to in their lives. Therefore, the theory could be argued to lack scientific rigour."
"Define the concept of 'Inadequate Superego' as proposed by Blackburn (1993)."	"The 'Inadequate Superego' concept argues that criminal behaviour arises as the result of an underdeveloped superego. If the superego, formed at the phallic psychosexual stage, is inadequate, the id is given ‘free reign’ to carry out its selfish impulses, which manifests in criminal behaviour. Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed: weak, deviant, and over-harsh."
"Describe Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Theory."	"Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Theory proposes that a warm, continuous maternal bond is essential for normal development and well-being. Lack of such a bond could potentially lead to developmental issues and behavioural problems."
"Describe the personality type known as 'affectionless psychopathy'."	"Affectionless psychopathy is a personality type characterized by a lack of guilt and empathy, and an increased likelihood of criminal behaviour. It is believed to develop in the absence of a strong mother-child attachment."
"What is the significance of the 44 thieves study in understanding affectionless psychopathy?"	"The 44 thieves study showed that a significant proportion of the sample (14 out of 44) exhibited affectionless psychopathy. Of these, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during their early childhood, suggesting a link between maternal deprivation and this personality type."
"How does Freudian theory explain the difference in criminal behaviour between males and females?"	"Freudian theory suggests that girls have weaker superegos than boys, as they are under less pressure to identify with the same-sex parent due to a lack of castration anxiety. This would theoretically lead to more criminal behaviour in females, but in reality, males show more criminal behaviour."
"What are some criticisms of the inadequate superego explanation for criminal behaviour?"	"Critics argue that there is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are more likely to offend. Additionally, if children raised by a deviant parent commit crime, it could be due to genetic inheritance rather than superego formation. The concept of superego formation is also difficult to test scientifically."
"Why is it difficult to establish a causal link between maternal deprivation and criminal behaviour?"	"It is difficult to establish a causal link because many factors can influence the likelihood of criminal behaviour. For example, a study by Lewis (1954) found no reliable link between maternal deprivation and criminal behaviour, suggesting that maternal deprivation may be just one of many factors."

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Describe Eysenck’s Theory of Offending Behaviour

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Eysenck’s theory proposes that behaviour can be measured along two dimensions: introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability. He later added a third dimension, psychoticism. He suggested that these personality traits originate from biology and are therefore innate. Eysenck argued that the criminal personality is a combination of extravert, neurotic, and psychotic characteristics.

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[{"id":1630364,"front":"Describe Eysenck’s Theory of Offending Behaviour","back":"Eysenck’s theory proposes that behaviour can be measured along two dimensions: introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability. He later added a third dimension, psychoticism. He suggested that these personality traits originate from biology and are therefore innate. Eysenck argued that the criminal personality is a combination of extravert, neurotic, and psychotic characteristics.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Eysenck's Theory of Offending Behavior is based on the idea that certain personality traits, such as extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, are biologically determined and can influence criminal behavior. These traits are believed to interact and contribute to the development of a criminal personality. Eysenck's theory emphasizes the role of biology in shaping behavior and suggests that individuals with specific personality traits may be more prone to engaging in criminal activities.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630379,"front":"How did Eysenck view the role of socialisation in criminal behaviour?","back":"Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature, as the criminal is concerned with instant gratification. If an individual had a high score in neuroticism and extraversion, they would find it hard to learn delayed gratification in childhood and be socialised properly, making them more likely to act in selfish, antisocial ways.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630386,"front":"What is the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)?","back":"The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) is a test developed by Eysenck to measure where respondents would be placed along the introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability dimensions, to determine their personality type.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"The Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) is a widely used psychological assessment tool that focuses on two primary personality dimensions: introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability. It helps categorize individuals based on these traits to understand their personality types.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630401,"front":"What are some criticisms of Eysenck’s theory?","back":"Critics argue that there are many different types of criminal personality, depending on the types of crimes and how they are carried out, making the idea of one criminal personality type over-simplistic. The method of measuring personality through a test which gives a score for different dimensions is also seen as reductionist, not reflecting the true complexity of personality and how it may differ over time.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Critics of Eysenck's theory highlight the oversimplification of criminal personality into one type, overlooking the diversity of criminal behaviors. They also question the reductionist approach of measuring personality through a test, which may not capture the full complexity and variability of personality traits.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630404,"front":"Define the concept of 'Level of Moral Reasoning' as suggested by Kohlberg.","back":"Kohlberg suggested that individuals have different levels of moral reasoning, which is the process of determining whether an action is right or wrong. This can be investigated by presenting individuals with imagined moral dilemmas.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Kohlberg's framework highlights that moral reasoning evolves through stages, reflecting deeper cognitive and ethical understanding. Each level represents a shift from self-centered reasoning to a more principled approach, emphasizing societal norms and universal ethical principles. This progression influences moral development and decision-making.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630408,"front":"Describe the 'pre-conventional model' of moral development in relation to criminal behavior.","back":"The 'pre-conventional model' of moral development is characterized by a simple need to avoid punishment and gain rewards. This is a more childlike level of reasoning. Crime may be committed if the criminal thinks they will get away with it, or if it brings a significant enough reward. Offenders at this level are more likely to be egocentric (self-centred) and less concerned with the rights of others.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630416,"front":"Define 'cognitive distortions' in the context of criminal behavior.","back":"Cognitive distortions are errors in the way an individual thinks, which can be used to explain how criminals justify their behavior. Examples include hostile attribution bias and minimisation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Cognitive distortions play a crucial role in shaping an individual's perception of reality, often leading to justifications for harmful actions. By misinterpreting social cues or downplaying the severity of their actions, individuals may feel justified in their criminal behavior, complicating rehabilitation efforts. Understanding these patterns is essential for effective intervention.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630421,"front":"How does 'hostile attribution bias' contribute to criminal behavior?","back":"'Hostile attribution bias' is a tendency to misinterpret the actions of others, seeing them as hostile or confrontational when they are not. This serves as a trigger for possible aggressive behavior. Violent offenders are more likely to perceive emotionally ambiguous expressions as angry and hostile.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Hostile attribution bias can escalate conflicts by fostering a cycle of aggression. Individuals with this bias may react defensively or aggressively to perceived threats, leading to misunderstandings and violence. This misinterpretation can perpetuate criminal behavior, as individuals may feel justified in their actions based on their skewed perceptions.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630427,"front":"What is 'minimisation' in the context of criminal behavior?","back":"'Minimisation' is the act of denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence. This may involve using euphemisms (‘job’ rather than ‘robbery’). For example, some offenders try to justify their actions by claiming they were ‘showing affection’ or that the victim consented.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630435,"front":"How does cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) address cognitive distortions in offenders?","back":"Through CBT, offenders can be encouraged to confront the seriousness of their actions. Research has found that successfully overcoming denial is correlated with lower rates of re-offending.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) helps offenders recognize and challenge their distorted thinking patterns, fostering accountability. By addressing denial, individuals can develop healthier thought processes, leading to improved decision-making and reduced recidivism. This therapeutic approach promotes self-awareness and personal responsibility.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630446,"front":"How does intelligence relate to criminal behavior, according to Langdon et al (2010)?","back":"Langdon et al (2010) argue that intelligence may be a better predictor of criminal behaviour than moral reasoning. People with very low intelligence, and also therefore low levels of moral reasoning, are actually less likely to commit crime.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Langdon et al. (2010) highlight the complexity of the relationship between intelligence and criminal behavior. While low intelligence may correlate with reduced moral reasoning, it can also lead to a lack of understanding of consequences, potentially influencing criminal choices. This suggests that cognitive factors play a significant role in behavior.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630452,"front":"Describe the Differential Association Theory proposed by Sutherland (1939).","back":"The Differential Association Theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through association with and interaction with different people. It posits that criminal behaviour arises from two factors: pro-criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts. If an individual is socialised into a group where there are more pro-criminal attitudes than anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend. The potential criminal also learns the practicalities of how to carry out criminal acts, such as picking a lock or disabling a car alarm system.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Differential Association Theory emphasizes the role of social interactions in shaping behavior. It highlights that individuals are influenced by the norms and values of their peer groups. This theory underscores the importance of social context in understanding crime, suggesting that exposure to criminal behavior can normalize such actions, leading to a cycle of offending.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630453,"front":"What are the strengths of the Differential Association Theory?","back":"The theory can explain why different types of crime are common amongst different groups of people, as the attitudes towards the crime and how to carry it out are learned and shared amongst the group. It also drew attention to the role of environments and learning in offending behaviour, moving away from the outdated atavistic approach and offering more practical solutions to the problem of crime.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Differential Association Theory emphasizes the social context of criminal behavior, highlighting how peer influence and cultural norms shape attitudes towards crime. This perspective encourages a focus on rehabilitation and prevention through community engagement, rather than solely punitive measures, fostering a more holistic approach to crime reduction.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630459,"front":"What are the criticisms of the Differential Association Theory?","back":"The theory is hard to test, for example how to measure the amount of pro-criminal attitudes a person has been exposed to in their lives. Therefore, the theory could be argued to lack scientific rigour.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Critics often highlight the subjective nature of measuring exposure to pro-criminal attitudes, making empirical validation challenging. Additionally, the theory may oversimplify complex social interactions and ignore biological or psychological factors influencing behavior, limiting its applicability in diverse contexts.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630471,"front":"Define the concept of 'Inadequate Superego' as proposed by Blackburn (1993).","back":"The 'Inadequate Superego' concept argues that criminal behaviour arises as the result of an underdeveloped superego. If the superego, formed at the phallic psychosexual stage, is inadequate, the id is given ‘free reign’ to carry out its selfish impulses, which manifests in criminal behaviour. Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed: weak, deviant, and over-harsh.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630483,"front":"Describe Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Theory.","back":"Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Theory proposes that a warm, continuous maternal bond is essential for normal development and well-being. Lack of such a bond could potentially lead to developmental issues and behavioural problems.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630491,"front":"Describe the personality type known as 'affectionless psychopathy'.","back":"Affectionless psychopathy is a personality type characterized by a lack of guilt and empathy, and an increased likelihood of criminal behaviour. It is believed to develop in the absence of a strong mother-child attachment.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Affectionless psychopathy highlights the critical role of early emotional bonds in personality development. Without nurturing relationships, individuals may struggle to form moral frameworks, leading to antisocial behaviors. This underscores the importance of secure attachments in fostering empathy and social responsibility.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630498,"front":"What is the significance of the 44 thieves study in understanding affectionless psychopathy?","back":"The 44 thieves study showed that a significant proportion of the sample (14 out of 44) exhibited affectionless psychopathy. Of these, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during their early childhood, suggesting a link between maternal deprivation and this personality type.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630506,"front":"How does Freudian theory explain the difference in criminal behaviour between males and females?","back":"Freudian theory suggests that girls have weaker superegos than boys, as they are under less pressure to identify with the same-sex parent due to a lack of castration anxiety. This would theoretically lead to more criminal behaviour in females, but in reality, males show more criminal behaviour.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Freudian theory emphasizes the role of psychosexual development and the formation of the superego in shaping moral behavior. The dynamics of identification with parental figures and the associated anxieties can influence behavioral outcomes. However, societal factors and gender roles also play significant roles in criminal behavior, complicating this perspective.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630523,"front":"What are some criticisms of the inadequate superego explanation for criminal behaviour?","back":"Critics argue that there is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are more likely to offend. Additionally, if children raised by a deviant parent commit crime, it could be due to genetic inheritance rather than superego formation. The concept of superego formation is also difficult to test scientifically.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630542,"front":"Why is it difficult to establish a causal link between maternal deprivation and criminal behaviour?","back":"It is difficult to establish a causal link because many factors can influence the likelihood of criminal behaviour. For example, a study by Lewis (1954) found no reliable link between maternal deprivation and criminal behaviour, suggesting that maternal deprivation may be just one of many factors.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Establishing a causal link is complex due to the interplay of genetic, environmental, and social influences on behavior. Factors like socioeconomic status, peer relationships, and individual temperament can all contribute to criminality, making it challenging to isolate maternal deprivation as a singular cause.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"7vtfP","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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