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Gender Schema Theory

A-Level AQA Psychology

This pack of flashcards encompasses key concepts in gender development theories, including Gender Schema Theory, Freudian psychoanalytic perspectives, and the impact of culture and media on gender roles. It covers empirical findings, theoretical distinctions such as between Kohlberg's theory and Gender Schema Theory, and addresses both support for and criticism of various explanations, including biological perspectives on Gender Identity Disorder (GID).

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"Define the concept of 'schema' in the context of Gender Schema Theory."	"A schema is an organised cluster of information that allows us to identify things in our environment. Schemas develop through environmental interaction and experience."
"Describe the role of 'Ingroups and Outgroups' in Gender Schema Theory."	"In Gender Schema Theory, there are two groups- boys and girls- and a child belongs to one of them. Their group is the in-group. The opposite sex is the out-group. Children then actively search for info about how members of their group should behave."
"How does Gender Schema Theory explain the development of gender identity in children?"	"According to Gender Schema Theory, once a child knows their gender identity, this leads them to form schemas, which are quite basic at first. Their environment helps them to develop these schemas, which become more complex over time. Information that does not fit with their existing schema is ignored or misremembered."
"Explain the Oedipus complex in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development."	"During the phallic stage, boys develop sexual desires for their mother, and become jealous of their father, seeing them as a rival for the mother’s affections. To resolve this conflict, boys give up their love for their mother, and identify with their father, taking on the gender identity of the father."
"Explain the Electra complex in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of gender development."	"During the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy, resenting their mother for having removed their penis, and also for possessing their father. Girls also identify with their mother as a means of resolving the Electra complex, taking on the gender identity of the mother."
"What is the main difference between Kohlberg's theory and Gender Schema Theory in terms of when gender development occurs?"	"Unlike Kohlberg, Martin and Halverson of Gender Schema Theory believe that children only need a basic gender identity to start the process of gender development. Therefore, gender development happens before gender constancy is achieved, starting at around age 2-3."
"Describe Freud's theory on women's progression beyond the phallic stage."	"Freud suggested that women never really progress beyond the phallic stage and there remains some fixation- they maintain a sense of envy and inferiority to men."
"Explain the case study of Little Hans."	"Little Hans was a 5-year-old boy who had a fear of horses, which Freud suggested was a displacement of his fear of his father finding out about his desire for his mother. This case study was used by Freud as evidence for the Oedipus complex."
"How does the Gender Schema Theory explain gender behavior?"	"The Gender Schema Theory suggests that gender behavior is learned from interacting with and observing things in the environment. This includes direct reinforcement, indirect/vicarious reinforcement, identification and modelling, and mediational processes."
"What is the role of culture in gender development?"	"Culture refers to the values, customs, shared traditions and practices of a particular group of people. It can influence gender development by shaping norms, beliefs, and social influences."
"What did Blakemore and Hill (2008) find about boys with liberal fathers?"	"Blakemore and Hill (2008) found that boys with more liberal, less harsh fathers were more secure in their gender identity than boys who had fathers that were strict."
"What did Golombok et al (1983) find about children from single-parent families?"	"Golombok et al (1983) found that children from single-parent families went on to develop normal gender identities."
"What is the criticism of Freud's theories?"	"Freud’s theories have been criticised as being unscientific and unfalsifiable, for example concepts such as the unconscious conflicts that drive the Oedipus/Electra complex. This weakens the explanation of gender development as the explanation has little or no empirical evidence to back it up."
"Describe the findings of Mead's study on gender behaviour in tribes in Papua New Guinea."	"Mead found gender differences among the tribes. The Arapesh males and females were gentle and responsive, the Mundungumor males and females were more hostile and aggressive, and the Tchambuli women were dominant, while the men were more passive. This suggests that gender is shaped by culture and upbringing."
"Define Gender Identity Disorder (GID)."	"GID is a feeling of mismatch between biological sex and psychological gender. Such individuals may identify as transgender and may opt for surgery so that their external genitalia match with their desired sex."
"How does the media potentially influence gender roles and gender-appropriate behaviours?"	"The media often portrays men as independent, autonomous, and ambitious, and women as passive and dependent. This, through social learning theory, may reinforce ideas about what is ‘expected’ behaviour for men and women. Additionally, children who consume more media may develop stronger gender-stereotypical views."
"Do cultural differences in gender roles support the role of the environment in shaping gender?"	"Yes, cultural differences in gender roles suggest that the environment plays a significant role in shaping gender. This is supported by cross-cultural studies that show variations in gender behaviours."
"What did Buss's study on mate-choice preference across different cultures suggest?"	"Buss's study suggested that there may be an innate preference when it comes to mate choice. Despite cultural differences, males generally looked for youth and signs of fertility, while females looked for resources."
"What are some challenges in conducting cross-cultural research into gender?"	"Challenges include observer bias, the imposed etic problem (participants may not entirely understand what is being asked of them), and the difficulty in separating the influence of nature and nurture."
"Describe the brain-sex theory in relation to Gender Identity Disorder (GID)."	"The brain-sex theory suggests that the brain structure of those with GID does not match their genetic sex. One part of the brain studied is the BSTc in the thalamus; on average, the BSTc is twice as large in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women. It is proposed that the size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than genetic sex."
"Do twin studies suggest a genetic basis for GID?"	"Yes, twin studies suggest a genetic link to GID. For example, Heylens et al (2012) studied 23 identical (MZ) and 21 non-identical (DZ) twin pairs, where one twin had been diagnosed with GID. He found that 39% of MZ twins also had GID, and none of the DZ twins."
"Define the Gender Schema Theory."	"The Gender Schema Theory proposed by Liben and Bigler (2002) suggests that gender development is affected by schema (gender schema theory). The second pathway is gender development being affected by the child’s own activities and interests. If this second pathway is dominant, this may cause the schema to be affected, leading to androgyny or GID in a minority of children."
"How does the Psychoanalytic theory explain GID?"	"Ovesey and Person (1973) proposed that GID results from experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has developed. To relieve the anxiety, the child imagines themselves as the parent (‘becomes’ the parent). Amongst boys, this could lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity."
"What are the limitations of the cognitive theory in explaining GID?"	"The cognitive theory has been criticised as not being a full explanation, for example it does not outline why the second pathway would become more dominant in some children. This therefore limits this explanation."
"What is the role of the BSTc in the brain in relation to GID?"	"The BSTc in the thalamus is thought to be similar in male to female transgender individuals and genetic females. The size of the BSTc is proposed to correlate with preferred sex rather than genetic sex."
"What is the criticism of biological explanations for GID?"	"Biological explanations may be reductionist, explaining GID in terms of a size of a part of the brain, and not considering the role of other factors in the development of GID."

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Define the concept of 'schema' in the context of Gender Schema Theory.

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A schema is an organised cluster of information that allows us to identify things in our environment. Schemas develop through environmental interaction and experience.

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This weakens the explanation of gender development as the explanation has little or no empirical evidence to back it up.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630890,"front":"Describe the findings of Mead's study on gender behaviour in tribes in Papua New Guinea.","back":"Mead found gender differences among the tribes. The Arapesh males and females were gentle and responsive, the Mundungumor males and females were more hostile and aggressive, and the Tchambuli women were dominant, while the men were more passive. This suggests that gender is shaped by culture and upbringing.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630894,"front":"Define Gender Identity Disorder (GID).","back":"GID is a feeling of mismatch between biological sex and psychological gender. Such individuals may identify as transgender and may opt for surgery so that their external genitalia match with their desired sex.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630897,"front":"How does the media potentially influence gender roles and gender-appropriate behaviours?","back":"The media often portrays men as independent, autonomous, and ambitious, and women as passive and dependent. This, through social learning theory, may reinforce ideas about what is ‘expected’ behaviour for men and women. Additionally, children who consume more media may develop stronger gender-stereotypical views.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630904,"front":"Do cultural differences in gender roles support the role of the environment in shaping gender?","back":"Yes, cultural differences in gender roles suggest that the environment plays a significant role in shaping gender. This is supported by cross-cultural studies that show variations in gender behaviours.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630905,"front":"What did Buss's study on mate-choice preference across different cultures suggest?","back":"Buss's study suggested that there may be an innate preference when it comes to mate choice. 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One part of the brain studied is the BSTc in the thalamus; on average, the BSTc is twice as large in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women. It is proposed that the size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than genetic sex.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630925,"front":"Do twin studies suggest a genetic basis for GID?","back":"Yes, twin studies suggest a genetic link to GID. For example, Heylens et al (2012) studied 23 identical (MZ) and 21 non-identical (DZ) twin pairs, where one twin had been diagnosed with GID. He found that 39% of MZ twins also had GID, and none of the DZ twins.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630931,"front":"Define the Gender Schema Theory.","back":"The Gender Schema Theory proposed by Liben and Bigler (2002) suggests that gender development is affected by schema (gender schema theory). The second pathway is gender development being affected by the child’s own activities and interests. If this second pathway is dominant, this may cause the schema to be affected, leading to androgyny or GID in a minority of children.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":"Gender Schema Theory emphasizes how children internalize societal gender norms and expectations, shaping their understanding of gender roles. It highlights the interplay between cognitive development and social influences, suggesting that personal interests can challenge traditional gender schemas, potentially leading to diverse gender identities.","deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630946,"front":"How does the Psychoanalytic theory explain GID?","back":"Ovesey and Person (1973) proposed that GID results from experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has developed. To relieve the anxiety, the child imagines themselves as the parent (‘becomes’ the parent). Amongst boys, this could lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630947,"front":"What are the limitations of the cognitive theory in explaining GID?","back":"The cognitive theory has been criticised as not being a full explanation, for example it does not outline why the second pathway would become more dominant in some children. This therefore limits this explanation.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630948,"front":"What is the role of the BSTc in the brain in relation to GID?","back":"The BSTc in the thalamus is thought to be similar in male to female transgender individuals and genetic females. The size of the BSTc is proposed to correlate with preferred sex rather than genetic sex.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}},{"id":1630949,"front":"What is the criticism of biological explanations for GID?","back":"Biological explanations may be reductionist, explaining GID in terms of a size of a part of the brain, and not considering the role of other factors in the development of GID.","front_language":"English","back_language":"English","front_image":"","back_image":"","order":0,"explanation":null,"deleted_at":null,"flashcard_deck_id":"2Mwq2","original_id":null,"examMode":{"text":"","correct":"","incorrect":"","info":""}}]

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